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http://www.archive.org/details/fertilizerresourOOunit 



62d CongressI . SENATE { ^TST 



Session J 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES 
OF THE UNITED STATES 



MESSAGE FROM THE 
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 

TRANSMITTING 

A LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF 
AGRICULTURE, TOGETHER WITH A PRE- 
LIMINARY REPORT BY THE BUREAU OF 
SOILS, ON THE FERTILIZER RESOURCES 
OF THE UNITED STATES 






DECEMBER 18, 1911 

Read ; referred to the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry and ordered to be 
printed with accompanying illustrations 



WASHINGTON 
1912 






62d Congress) sfnatf /Document 

8d Session ) WUNAIJ!, j ^ igQ 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES 
OF THE UNITED STATES 



MESSAGE FROM THE 
PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES 

TRANSMITTING 



A LETTER FROM THE SECRETARY OF 
AGRICULTURE, TOGETHER WITH A PRE- 
LIMINARY REPORT BY THE BUREAU OF 
SOILS, ON THE FERTILIZER RESOURCES 
OF THE UNITED STATES 






'T 



DECEMBER 18, 1911 

Read ; referred to the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry and ordered to be 
printed with accompanying illustrations 



WASHINGTON 
1912 



MESSAGE OF THE PRESIDENT. 



To the Senate and House of Representatives : 

I transmit herewith, for the information of the Congress, a com- 
munication from the Secretary of Agriculture, accompanying a 
preliminary report on the fertilizer resources of the United States. 
This report carries valuable data and information of great public 
interest, and I am in hearty accord with the recommendation of the 
Secretary that this work receive all the support which Congress in 
its wisdom may find expedient to give to it. 

Wm. H. Tapt. 

The White House, December 18, 1911. 

8 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



Department of Agriculture, 

Office of the Secretary, 
Washington, December 14, 1911. 
Mr. President: 

I have the honor to transmit a preliminary report on the fertilizer 
resources of the United States, describing investigations which have 
been carried out by experts of the Bureau of Soils, following a 
special authorization by the last regular session of Congress. This 
work is now in progress. But the ground already covered and de- 
scribed in this report is of such public interest that I am impelled 
to lay it before you at once. 

The use of fertilizers has grown to very large proportiong in this 
country, involving an annual expenditure of about $120,000,000, and 
there are many evidences that this amount is likely to be soon in- 
creased several fold as more modem and intensive agricultural meth- 
ods are adopted, these being a necessary consequence to the rapid 
settlement of the country and the inevitable readjustment of social 
and economic conditions incident thereto. 

This country has been supplying its own needs and exporting large 
amounts of phosphates abroad. It appears from the evidence in this 
report that the supplies of natural phosphates at present in sight 
will be sufficient for our needs for 10 centuries or more, if they are 
exploited carefully and with a minimum wastage. But it is clearly 
evident that the wastage must be stopped or controlled, if we are 
to maintain our independence in this regard. Methods for the 
utilization of lower-grade materials and improvement of tlfe manu- 
factured product must be worked out, and this report contains valu- 
able data toward these ends. A marked tendency toward better 
and less wasteful methods of mining is already in evidence. There 
has been some public alarm, not only on account of the large ship- 
ments of phosphate rock to foreign ports, but also on account of some 
large holdings of phosphate lands passing into the hands of foreign 
owners. From this report, however, it appears that by far the major 
part of the holdings are in American hands, and the tendency is 
distinctly toward an increase in this direction. At present the do- 
mestic consumption of phosphate rock is about 2,650,000 tons. The 
exportation is about 1,100,000 tons, valued at about $8,250,000. The 
estimated amount of high-grade rock and its equivalent in lower 
grades is about 9,500,000,000 tons. 

Not so fortunate has been our situation with regard to nitrogenous 
and potash fertilizers, and recent events have tended to create more 



6 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 

or less alarm regarding our dependence on foreign sources of sup- 
ply. But the evidence brought together in this report shows that 
ample supplies of both classes of fertilizers can readily be obtained 
from American sources, and in the case of the potash the supply may 
be maintained indefinitely if obvious methods of control are promptly 
instituted. One of the important sources of nitrogenous fertilizers 
is the ammonium sulphate obtained from modern types of coke ovens 
and gas works. Calculated from the coal used in these industries, 
the annual production of ammonium sulphate should be approxi- 
mately 640,000 tons, valued at $30,000,000. Actually 35,000 tons, 
valued at $1,840,000, are being produced, while about 104,000 tons, 
valued at $5,300,000, are annually imported. 

Investigations have been made and are still under way for the 
extraction of potash from silicate and other minerals, and from 
industrial wastes and by-products. Likewise diligent search is being 
made of the desert basins of the arid States. Some promises of 
minor successes are coming from this work. But in the giant kelps 
of the Pacific coast there is a potential source of potash salts which 
can certainly yield annually some three or four times the amounts 
now used in this country, and under the best management might 
even rival the famous Stassfurt deposits. It is regarded as a very 
conservative estimate to put the annual yield of potassium chloride 
from the Pacific kelps at upward of 1,000,000 tons, worth at present 
prices nearly $40,000,000. Some very important problems regard- 
ing the harvesting of the kelp and the technical handling of the 
product are not yet worked out completely. These do not appear to 
present any serious difficulties, however, and with a little more time 
and the support of Congress it seems certain that a notable addition 
will be made to American industries, and a valuable resource made 
available to American agriculture. It is obvious that the investiga- 
tions described in this report are a public work of fundamental im- 
portance to the general welfare. 

I have the honor to recommend that this report be transmitted to 
Congress, together with the maps, illustrations, and diagrams accom- 
panying, to be printed by order of that body, and I further recom- 
mend that not less than 5,000 copies be printed for the use of this 
department, in addition to such number as Congress may order for 
the use of its Members. 

I have the honor to remain, Mr. President, 
Very respectfully, 

James Wilson, Secretary. 



LETTEE OF SUBMITTAL. 



United States Department of Agriculture, 

Bureau of Soils, 
Washington, D. C, December 13, 1911. 

Sir : I have the honor to submit herewith the manuscript of a pre- 
liminary report on the fertilizer resources of the United States. At 
the last regular session of Congress, and at the instance of the Hon. 
A. F. Lever, special authority and a specific appropriation was 
given for the investigations described in this report, it being under- 
stood that the necessary laboratory work would he provided in the 
already existing organization of this bureau. The bureau has, more- 
over, been fortunate in securing the services of a number of experts 
who would not ordinarily be available to the department and to 
whom acknowledgment is made in the accompanying manuscript. 

The scope of the investigations is very wide, and much valuable 
information has been acquired which will later be of incalculable 
value to the country and of great assistance to both scientists and 
laymen who are interested in fertilizers. Valuable work has been 
done in the investigation of sources of supply and the manufacture 
of phosphatic and nitrogenous fertilizers. Most important, however, 
and especially so because of recent public events, are the results of 
the investigations on possible sources of potash fertilizers. While 
there are several sources of potash of possible economic importance, 
one of these overshadows all others. In the kelp groves or beds of 
giant kelps along the Pacific littoral, and especially in the large 
groves of Macrocystis from Point Sur southward, the United States 
possesses an extremely valuable national asset. At their best, and 
under the most careful and efficient utilization of these groves, they 
might be made to yield annually an output of potassium chloride 
approximating the production of potash salts of all kinds from the 
world-famous Stassfurt deposits. But until more complete studies 
have been made it seems wise to advance a more conservative esti- 
mate. From the observations and data which this bureau has re- 
cently secured there can be no reasonable doubt that the Pacific kelps 
may easily be made to produce annually potassium chloride to the 
extent of at least three times the present importations of potash 
salts of all kinds, with a value, at current prices, between $35,000,000 
and $40,000,000. Moreover, it should be perfectly feasible to cover 

7 



8 LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. 

most, if not the entire, cost of production of this vast " crop " by the 
iodine and other by-products produced simultaneously. 

So important are these facts for the national welfare, and so acute 
is public interest in them, it is deemed wise to submit this prelim- 
inary report at the earliest date practicable, that you may make such 
disposition of the information as may commend itself to your 
judgment. 

I have the honor to be, Mr. Secretary, respectfully, 

Milton Whitney, 

Chief of Bureau. 
Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 



A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE FERTILIZER 
RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES 

BY 

FRANK K. CAMERON 

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF 

R. B. MOORE 

E. E. FREE, J. W. TURRENTINE, W. H. WAGGAMAN, J. G. SMITH, 

A. R. MERZ, R. F. GARDNER, C. C. DARWIN, C. L. ALSBERG, 

W. A. SETCHELL, G. B. RIGG, F. M. MacFARLAND, 

W. C. CRANDALL, and E. C. JOHNSTON 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
A preliminary report of the fertilizer resources of the United States: 

The purpose and scope of the work 15 

Readjustment of land values 15 

Fertilizers 16 

Authority for investigations 17 

Lines sf investigation 18 

Phosphatic fertilizers 19 

National resources 19 

The South Carolina fields 21 

The Florida fields 21 

The Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana fields 22 

The Tennessee fields 22 

The Arkansas fields 23 

The Kentucky fields 24 

Nitrogen fertilizers 24 

Nitrate deposits 24 

Organic and other nitrogen carriers 26 

Ammonium sulphate 26 

Potash fertilizers 27 

The Stassfurt salts 27 

Minor sources 29 

Desert basins 30 

Brines, wells, and salt deposits 36 

Potash silicates 37 

Alunite 39 

The manufacture of fertilizers at Salt Lake 40 

The Pacific kelp groves 40 

The cost of potash fertilizers 47 

Conclusions 48 

APPENDIXES. 

Appendix A. — Natural phosphates of Tennessee .' 49 

Introduction 49 

Geography and topography 49 

General geology 50 

Classes of phosphate 50 

Brown-rock phosphate 50 

Location of deposits 50 

Geological occurrence and origin 51 

Physical properties 52 

Methods of mining 52 

Cost of production 54 

Marketing output 55 

Waste material 55 

Present condition of the industry 58 

Future of the industry 59 

Blue-rock phosphate 59 

Location of deposits 59 

Geological occurrence 59 

Physical properties 60 

Methods of mining 61 

Cost of production 61 

Disposal of product 62 

Freight rates 62 

Extent of operations 62 

Present condition of the industry 62 

Future operations 63 

11 



12 CONTENTS. 

Appendix A. — Natural phosphates of Tennessee — Continued. 

Classes of phosphate — Continued. Page. 

White-rock phosphate 63 

Location of deposits 63 

Geological occurrence and origin 63 

Physical properties 64 

Methods of mining 64 

Cost of production 65 

Waste material 65 

Extent of operations 66 

Present condition of the industry 66 

Future operations 66 

Natural phosphates of Kentucky 66 

Description of deposits 66 

Location of deposits 67 

Geological occurrence 67 

Physical properties 69 

Methods of mining 70 

Marketing output 70 

Present condition of the industry 71 

Outlook ' 71 

Natural phosphates of Arkansas 71 

General description of deposits 71 

Location of deposits 73 

Geological occurrence 74 

Physical properties 75 

Methods of mining 76 

Cost of mining 76 

Marketing 76 

Operating conditions 76 

Outlook. . 77 

Appendix B. — Reference list for phosphates 78 

Appendix C. — Memorandum on the manufacture of acid phosphate in the 

Southern States 107 

Introduction 107 

Raw materials ' 107 

Method of manufacture 108 

Storing the acid phosphate 109 

Cost of production 11 

Appendix D . — Memorandum on the manufacture of sulphuric acid 112 

Introduction 112 

Raw materials 113 

Method of manufacture 113 

Efficiency 114 

Cost of production. 115 

Waste material 117 

Appendix E. — Memorandum on ammonium sulphate 119 

Introduction 119 

Sources of ammonia 119 

Theoretical amount of recoverable ammonia 119 

Methods of manufacturing sulphate of ammonia 1 20 

Production of ammonium sulphate in the United States 121 

Cost of production 122 

Ammonium sulphate as a fertilizer 123 

Appendix F.— Alkali crusts containing 0.5 per cent or more of potash 124 

Appendix G. — List of patents for the extraction of potash salts 1 25 

Appendix H. — Memorandum, in re, saline claims, potash deposits, etc 126 

Appendix I. — Memorandum, in re, jurisdiction over kelp groves 1 29 

Appendix K. — The kelps of the coast of the United States and Alaska 130 

Conditions of life 134 

Relation of bathymetric zones 134 

Relation of substratum 134 

Relation of salinity of the water 135 

Relation of temperature 135 

Relations of light 137 

Relations of air 137 

Floating forms 138 



CONTENTS. 13 

Appendix K. — The kelps of the coast of the United States and Alaska — Contd. 

Conditions of life— Continued. Page. 

Duration of life and seasons 138 

Regeneration 140 

Special morphology and classification 141 

Economic considerations , 165 

Human food 165 

Fodder for domestic animals 168 

Manuring 168 

Manufacture of kelp 173 

Potash from kelp 176 

Iodine from kelp 176 

Other products of Laminariaceae 177 

Appendix X. — Ecological and economic notes on Puget Sound kelps 179 

Appendix M. — Kelps of the central Californian coast 194 

Introduction 194 

The Phaeophyceae 195 

The Rhodophyceae 203 

A reconnoissance of the Pacific shore line from San Francisco to Point Sur. . 203 

Summary 208 

Appendix N . — The kelps of the southern Californian coast 209 

Appendix O. — Brief notes on the kelps of Alaska 214 

Appendix P. — The composition of kelps 217 

Methods of analysis 217 

Discussion of analytical data 222 

Seaweeds of various origins 223 

Appendix Q. — The technology of the seaweed industry 232 

Harvesting 232 

Curing 234 

Burning of kelp 236 

Preparation of potassium salts and iodine 246 

Direct use as a fertilizer 248 

Alginic acid and derivatives 249 

The present uses of seaweed 253 

Appendix R. — A discussion of the probable food value of marine algse 263 

Proteins of seaweeds 264 

Fats 265 

Carbohydrates or sugars 265 

Appendix S. — Reference list of papers concerning the economic uses of algse 

and concerning the salts derived from ashes 271 

Appendix T. — A reference list to the literature of the marine algae 277 



ILLUSTEATIONS. 



PLATES. 



Page. 



03 

5 



Plate I. Fig. 1. — Stratum of phosphatic limestone occurring in phosphate beds. 
Fig. 2. — Brown-rock mining, showing bowlders of phosphatic 
limestone 

II. Fig. 1. — Brown-rock mining, Centerville, Hickman County, Tenn. 
Fig. 2. — One of the most modern types of phosphate plants, 
Mount Pleasant, Tenn 

III. Fig. 1. — Brown-rock phosphate plant, showing waste pond in fore- 

ground. Fig. 2. — Another view of the same plant, showing hood 
over stack and settling tanks for finely divided phosphate 

IV. Blue-rock mine, 2£ miles southeast of Centerville, Hickman County, 

Tenn 

V. Fig. 1. — Front view of acid plant run in connection with a copper mine. 

Fig. 2. — Side view of same plant, showing storage tanks for acid . 

VI. Fig. 1. — Battery of pyrites burners. Fig. 2. — Sulphuric acid plant 

storage shed, and cinder pile 

VII. Fig. 1. — View of modern by-product coke oven plant with iron furnace 

in background. Fig. 2. — A nearer view of the same plant 

VIII. Fig. 1. — View of tar and liquor condensers. Fig. 2. — By-product 

house containing ammonia stills 

IX. Fig. 1. — Bed of Nereocystis (bladder kelp) at Kanaka Bay. Fig. 2. — 

Nereocystis plants at low tide, Turn Island 

X. Fig. 1. — A rock near Turn Island, at low tide. Fig. 2. — A holdfast of 

Nereocystis 

XL A young Nereocystis plant 

XII. Fig. 1. — A young Nereocystis plant, showing pneumatocyst and basal 
splitting of leaves. Fig. 2 . — Portions of two fronds of Nereocystis. . 

XIII. Fig. 1. — Laminaria saccharina. Fig. 2.— Laminaria bullata 

XIV. Fig. 1. — A folded plant of Cymatliaere triplicata. Fig. 2. — Agarum 

fimbriatum 

XV. Fig. 1. — Hedophyllum on rock at Neah Bay. Fig. 2. — An Alaria 

plant floated on a board 

XVI. Fig. 1. — Costaria turneri. Fig. 2. — Pleurophycus gardneri 

XVII. Fig. 1. — Man holding a single Egregia plant at Kanaka Bay, at low 

tide. Fig. 2. — Fucus on a rock at Kanaka Bay 

XVIII. Fig. 1. — Portion of an Egregia plant, showing sporophylls and floats. 

Fig. 2.- — Codium muoronatum 

XIX. Macrocystis pyrif era from southern California 

FIGURES. 

Fig . 1 . Approximate diatrib ution of the Tennessee phosphates 49 

2. Map of the bluegrass region of Kentucky, showing distribution of Lexing- 

ton and Winchester limestones, between which the phosphate occurs. . 68 

3. Map of northern Arkansas, showing location of reported phosphate 

deposits 72 

MAPS. 

Index map. 

Sheet I, Strait of Juan de Fuca. 
Sheet II, San Juan and Orcas Island area. 
Sheet III, Seattle and vicinity. 

Sheet IV, Bolinas Point to Tunitas Creek. • 

Sheet V, Tunitas Creek to Soquel Cove. 
Sheet VI, Point Pinos. 

Sheet VII, Cypress Point to Soberanes Point, 
Sheet VIII, Point Sur to Cooper Point. 
Sheet IX, Point Conception to Ventura. 
Sheet X, Cuylers Harbor, San Miguel Island. 
Sheet XI, Anacapa Island and east end of Santa Cruz Island. 
Sheet XII, Santa Barbara and approaches. 

Sheet XIII, Point Mugu to Port Ballona ; San Nicolas and Santa Barbara Islands. 
Sheet XIV, San Pedro and vicinity ; Santa Catalina and San Clemente Islands. 
Sheet XV, Southeast anchorage, San Clemente Island. 
Sheet XVI, Malaga Cove to Wilmington, Los Angeles Harbor, and vicinity. 
Sheet XVII, Newport Bay to Point La Jolla. 

Sheet XVIII, La Jolla to Point Loma, San Diego, Los Coronados Islands. 
14 



A PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE FERTILIZER RE- 
SOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



THE PURPOSE AND SCOPE OF THE WORK. 
READJUSTMENT OF LAND VALTTES. 

There are yet many unoccupied acres of arable land in the United 
States. This is true of the East as well as the West and of the 
North as of the South. But the time for pioneer invasion of virgin 
territory is past. In a broad way the country is now settled. Al- 
ready the readjustment of population, the necessary consequence of 
this settlement, is under way, and the return tide of immigration 
from the West to the East is beginning to attract public attention. 

With the readjustment of the population there must inevitably 
come a readjustment of land values. Generally speaking, the values 
of arable lands west of the Mississippi River are much higher than 
the values of land east of that river. The one stable basis for deter- 
mining land value is its productivity measured in crops. While un- 
doubtedly having an influence locally on relative values, the pro- 
ductivity of the soil has not, up to the present, been the determining- 
factor in adjusting the relative values throughout the country as a 
whole, or even throughout the major sections of the country. 

The readjustment of land values is inevitable. A rapid movement 
in this direction might easily bring dire results, economical and so- 
cial. It is the duty of the Federal Government, and it is a major 
effort of the Department of Agriculture, to determine existing con- 
ditions, that there may be a more gradual movement founded on 
well-ascertained facts and a better understanding of our soils and 
their productive capacities under intelligent management and con- 
trol. Soil surveys and agronomic investigations by Federal and 
State agencies are rapidly accumulating fundamental data of incal- 
culable value. But a sufficiently complete and satisfactory knowl- 
edge of the possibilities of our soils under the best conditions can be 
claimed for only a very few special cases. 

The experience of the world, confirmed and emphasized by recent 
scientific investigation, has shown conclusively that efficient utiliza- 
tion of the soil involves the coincident employment of tillage, crop 
rotations, and soil amendments, or fertilizers. In our South Atlantic 
States, because of the former slave labor, which understands the cul- 
tivation of but one or two crops, and because of the distressing labor 
conditions following the Civil War, one-crop systems prevail. The 
introduction of commercial fertilizers soon after the war was eagerly 
hailed as a universal panacea, and tillage generally was negligent 
and of the most unsatisfactory character. An enormous fertilizer 

15 



16 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

business was built up, but the abused and misused soils became a re- 
proach, and the "worn-out soils" of the South a byword. Recent 
developments, however, among which the advance of the boll weevil 
stands prominently, have led to the introduction of diversified farm- 
ing in many localities. That is to say that, in addition to using fer- 
tilizers freely, they have been used more intelligently; the adapta- 
tion of crops to types of soil has been considered; rotations intro- 
duced; better tillage employed; and it is rapidly becoming evident 
that the "worn-out" soils of the South, under intelligent manage- 
ment, compare favorably with those of any section. 

In the trans-Mississippi regions, because of their rapid settlement, 
pioneer methods of agriculture have retained a great influence. Here 
again the one-crop system has prevailed, crop rotations have been 
unusual, fertilizers are seldom or never employed, and on tillage alone 
has dependence been placed. There is a widespread and rapidly 
growing belief that the soils of many sections are falling off in pro- 
ductivity, and that the yields no"w obtained will not justify a con- 
tinuance of the existing high valuation of the land. Clearly, to 
maintain a high crop production and efficient use of the land, suitable 
crop rotations must be determined and employed and an intelligent 
use of fertilizers developed. Local prejudices must yield "'-and will 
do so the more readily as population increases and local transportation 
facilities are developed. 

The widespread and general introduction of such agencies as the 
telephone and the automobile into western areas is rapidly bringing 
about a disintegration of " ranches " into farms and the introduction 
of modern intensive methods. There exists a strong local prejudice 
in many sections of the country to the use of fertilizers, because of a 
popular concept that their only or main function is to supply " plant 
food," and that the admission that they are beneficial to the soil is 
tantamount to an admission that the soils are " wearing out." Scien- 
tific investigations of the last few years, however, have shown that 
fertilizers have many other and probably more important uses than 
increasing the supply of mineral plant nutrients, and the general 
spread of this knowledge among our agricultural people will go far to 
overcome this unfortunate local prejudice. 

The readjustment of land values, then, is a great national problem, 
dependent upon a better use of the land, involving the general intro- 
duction of intensive methods of agriculture, including a rational 
management of the soil through the human instrumentalities of 
tillage, crop rotation, and fertilizers. Tillage and crop rotations are 
mainly problems within the control and dependent only upon the 
judgment of the farmer himself. Fertilizers, however, involve prob- 
lems of quite different character, bringing the farmer into contact 
with those of manufacture, distribution, sources of supply, etc., 
which obviously call for governmental assistance. 

FERTILIZERS. 

At present about $120,000,000 annually is spent in this country 
for commercial fertilizers, of which more than 80 per cent is spent in 
the South Atlantic States and about 3 per cent west of the Mississippi 
River. The use of fertilizers in Texas, Mississippi, and the citrus- 
fruit regions of California has been increasing rapidly, however, in 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 17 

the last few years. With the development of the use of fertilizers 
in the older sections of the country and the certainty of its extension 
into the agricultural sections of the West, a vast industry must 
come into existence in the next few years, of fundamental importance 
to the agricultural interests and to the material development of our 
people. 

At the present time commercial fertilizers are composed of three 
classes of material. The basis of artificial or manufactured fer- 
tilizers the world over is superphosphate, made by treating with 
acid, usually sulphuric acid, some natural phosphate, usually a phos- 
phorite or basic phosphate of lime. This country is fortunate in 
having within its confines enormous deposits of natural phosphates, 
including the well-known fields of South Carolina. Florida, Ten- 
nessee, Arkansas, and Kentucky, lesser deposits in many other 
States,- and the greatest deposit of the world in Montana, Wyoming, 
Utah, and Idaho. 

The second class of fertilizer materials includes the nitrogen car- 
riers. From some points of view the most important of these is 
sodium nitrate or Chile saltpeter. Last year about 546,525 tons of 
this material, valued at $17,101,140, was imported into this country, 
mainly xTom Chile. Only a portion, however, variously estimated 
from 15 to 60 per cent, went into fertilizers. Powder works, the 
dye and other industries absorbed large quant ites of this substance. 
Deposits of this material have been found in this country, but none 
of commercial importance have yet been exploited. Ammonium 
salts, a product of the coke ovens and gas furnaces; slaughterhouse 
products; cottonseed meal; and in lesser quantities, other nitroge- 
nous organic materials are utilized in the manufacture of fertilizers. 
The so-called atmospheric products, calcium cyanamid and basic cal- 
cium nitrate, are finding an increased use. 

Fertilizer materials of the third class are the potash carriers, and 
practically these are confined at present to the potassium salts coming 
from Stassfurt, Germany, the mines of which supply the entire 
world. A relatively small quantity of potassium nitrate from India 
is imported into this country, but this goes almost entirely into the 
manufacture of fireworks and explosives. Potassium carbonate in 
the form of hardwood ashes comes into this country from Canada, a 
part being used by the fertilizer trade and a part being taken by 
soap makers. Up to the present there have been no sources of 
potash in this country commercially developed. 

AUTHORITY FOE INTESTIGATIONS. 

The Bureau of Soils has for some time past given attention to the 
resources of this country in possible sources of fertilizer materials. 
Public attention has been repeatedly drawn to this matter in recent 
years; first, through fears expressed by some writers in the current 
press that our resources in phosphates were being unwarrantably 
dissipated ; and, second, by the controversy arising between the Ger- 
man " Kali Syndikat " and certain American importers of potash 
salts. At the last regular session of Congress, at the instance of the 
Hon. A. F. Lever, the Bureau of Soils was authorized and directed 
to explore and investigate this country for sources of fertilizer 
20827°— S. Doc. 190, 62-2 2 



18 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

materials, and at the same session the United States Geological Sur- 
vey was given authority enabling it to make exploratory borings to 
determine the possible existence of segregated layers of potash salts, 
similar to the deposits at Stassfurt. 

The work of the Bureau of Soil, although it has been in progress 
but a few months, has developed to a point of public interest and 
importance which calls for the preliminary report which follows. 

LINES OF INVESTIGATION. 

This work has been along several main lines. A field survey of 
the desert basins in our arid States is in progress, for the purpose of 
locating deposits of potash salts and nitrate, and incidentally to 
locate deposits of alunite, leucite, phosphorites, or any materials of 
importance to the general purpose of the investigation. A somewhat 
detailed survey has been made of the Otero Basin in New Mexico, 
of the Surprise and neighboring valleys in Oregon, and of a part of the 
Salton Basin in California; and less detailed work has been done 
in a number of localities in these same States and in Nevada. 

The Geological Survey is drilling in the Humboldt Basin and 
carrying on work closely allied to the work of this bureau just de- 
scribed, and the State geological agents of Nevada have been con- 
ducting work of a similar character. To avoid duplication of 
effort and to furnish analytical assistance in the most prompt and 
practical manner, a cooperative laboratory has been opened at the 
University of Nevada, at Reno, under the direction of Prof. J. G. 
Young. This laboratory, besides furnishing assistance to this bureau, 
the Geological Survey, and the Geological Survey of Nevada, will, 
in addition and under reasonable restrictions, make examination of 
samples forwarded by private individuals when the samples are 
expected to assist in the location of deposits of potash, nitrates, or 
phosphates. 

A second line of investigation is of the brines and bitterns from 
salt wells to determine the presence of workable quantities of potash. 
Several hundred samples, a large proportion collected under stand- 
ard conditions, are now being analyzed with great care. 

A third line of investigation has been a study of the effect of water 
and of various reagents upon the potash feldspars and other potash 
minerals. Patented and unpatented processes have been subjected 
to scrutiny and tests to determine their values for utilizing great 
natural resources and as a measure of protection to the public, which 
seems unduly prone to invest unthinkingly in "chemical" proposi- 
tions, and especially in potash ventures. Among other things the 
efficiency with which potash may be extracted from alunite has been 
studied, and it seems that under favorable conditions this mineral 
may become an important source of potash. 

A fourth line of investigation has been a theoretical study of aque- 
ous solutions of mixtures of potassium and sodium salts necessary to 
an intelligent handling of the more practical investigations under 
way. Practically all methods of extracting potash from natural 
sources involve the leaching by water of potassium salts with those 
of sodium and other bases from a less soluble residue. The separa- 
tion and isolation of the potash from this aqueous solution is the 
most difficult and by far the most expensive operation in the vast 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 19 

majority of the processes yet proposed, and careful work on this 
problem will contribute as much as any other one thing to the prac- 
ticability of " making potash." 

The fifth line of investigation has been the study of seaweeds 
and kelp. The kelps of the Pacific coast, both in extent and in com- 
position, are far more important than those of any other known coast 
line. As a possible source of potash they are a most important and 
valuable national asset. The bureau has been fortunate in securing 
the services of Prof. George B. Rigg, of the University of Washing- 
ton, Seattle; of Prof. Frank M. McFarland, Leland Stanford Uni- 
versity ; and Capt. W. C. Crandall, of the Marine Biological Associa- 
tion of San Diego, Cal. Through the courtesy of the association and 
of Director Wm. E. Hitter, of the La Jolla station, the services of 
the station boat were made available. About 100 square miles of 
kelp groves were surveyed ; in Puget Sound, in the neighborhood of 
Monterey, and from Point Loma to Point Conception on the Califor- 
nia coast. The composition of these kelps, and especially their pot- 
ash content, has been determined. In addition, Prof. Wm. A. 
Setchell, of the University of California, and Dr. Carl L. Alsberg, 
of the Bureau of Plant Industry, have prepared expert reports on 
certain features of the kelp, and the United States Fish Commission 
has furnished some data obtained by the officers of the Albatross 
cruising in North Pacific waters. Mr. Wm. R. Maxon, of the United 
States National Museum, has identified some samples of kelp. 

A sixth line of work has been an investigation of the phosphate 
resources of the country. Field studies have been made of the ex- 
tent and characteristics of the deposits of phosphorites or rock 
phosphates in Tennessee, Kentucky, and Arkansas, following pre- 
vious studies in Florida and in Utah, Idaho, and Wyoming. A 
study has also been made of the factory manipulation of the raw 
rock in the preparation of superphosphate, the production of sul- 
phuric acid, etc., and the investigation is being continued to deter- 
mine the distribution of the finished product, methods of use, and the 
use of ground raw rock and other phosphatic manures. 

A seventh line of investigation has been to determine the resources 
of the country in nitrogen fertilizers. Attention has been given to 
the production of atmospheric products, cottonseed meal, slaughter- 
house products, etc. But the main effort at the present time has 
been to determine, on the one hand, the location of deposits of ni- 
trates, and, on the other hand, the possible production of ammonium 
salts from modern coke ovens and gas works. 

PHOSPHATIC FERTILIZERS. 
NATURAL RESOURCES. 

The natural resources of the United States as regards phosphates 
are superior to those of any other nation. The material which 
alone commands attention is the natural phosphorite, " rock phos- 
phate," natural or basic phosphate of lime, containing more or less 
carbonate of lime, and frequently incidental quantities of alumina, 
ferric oxide, and silica. Deposits of apatite occur in this country, 
and potentially there exists a large store of valuable material in 
the slags from iron furnaces. But neither apatite nor basic slag (at 
least from American sources) is of appreciable importance at 



20 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

present or for the near future, since they can not compete with rock 
phosphate. 

At the present time commercially available rock is expected to 
carry a percentage of phosphorus equivalent to 60 to 80 per cent 
tricalcium phosphate. Exceptionally, a product is mined running 
as high as 85 per cent tricalcium phosphate. Practically all of the 
high-grade material, that running 75 per cent or more tricalcium 
phosphate, is shipped abroad, the exportation for 1910 being approxi- 
mately 1,083,037 tons, valued at $8,234,276. The European markets 
generally demand a much higher grade of superphosphate or manu- 
factured product than does the American. It is customary for them to 
use French and Belgian phosphates and the phosphates from Algeria 
and Tunis, all of which are low-grade rocks, from 55 to 65 per cent 
tricalcium phosphate. To bring their products up to higher grades 
they use the very high grade rock, carrying from 80 to 85 per cent 
tricalcium phosphate, coming from the Ocean Island of the South 
Pacific Ocean and Christmas Island and Ocean Island of the Indian 
Ocean and large quantities of American rock, chiefly from Florida. 
A relatively small quantity of Tennessee rock is also exported. 

In America the fertilizer factories use rock grading from 58 to 72 
per cent tricalcium phosphate. In recent years there has been a de- 
cided tendency to use higher grades, running from 68 per cent up- 
ward. This is due to the fact that the higher grade rock yields a 
more uniform and easily controlled product in the factory and a 
product of superior physical and mechanical properties important 
as affecting its shipping qualities. 

To give an accurate estimate of the quantity of available rock phos- 
phate in the United States is practically impossible, owing to the 
nature of the deposits in many areas and the yet limited extent of 
prospecting by competent scientific observers. It is certainly very 
large, well distributed both east and west, and, if carefully mined 
with due regard to elimination of wastage and utilization of lower 
grades, is sufficient for any imaginable demand of the future so far 
ahead that it may be characterized as practically inexhaustible. 

The following figures are not intended as accurate estimates, but are 
regarded as ultra conservative. They will, however, suffice to show 
that there is no imminent prospect of a dearth of phosphatic material 
in this country : 
Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana: Tons - 

High grade 2, 500, 000, 000 

High-grade equivalent of low grade 6,667,000,000 

Tennessee, high-grade equivalent of all grades 160, 000, 000 

South Carolina, high-grade equivalent of all grades 3, 000, 000 

Arkansas, high-grade equivalent of all grades 20, 000, 000 

Florida, high-grade equivalent of all grades 150, 000, 000 

Florida, high-grade equivalent of wash heaps 16,000,000 

The present consumption in the United States is approximately 
2,650,000 tons annually. Therefore, even assuming there are to be no 
new discoveries and that the average consumption during the life of 
the fields will be three times the present consumption, they would 
suffice for 1,200 years. 

For convenience, the larger American phosphate deposits can 
be considered as the South Carolina, the Florida, the Tennessee- 
Arkansas-Kentucky, and the Utah-Wyoming-Montana-Idaho fields. 



FERTILIZES RESOUKCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 21 

THE SOUTH CAROLINA FIELDS. 

These fields were the first to be exploited commercially. At pres- 
ent, mining there is falling off and the product is utilized mainly by 
local or near-by factories. Exportations from this field have prac- 
tically ceased. The surface and easily accessible material has largely 
disappeared, mining operations are increasingly expensive, and the 
product is of medium or low grade and does not yield a superphos- 
phate of as satisfactory quality as does the Florida or Tennessee rock, 
although mechanical condition and shipping qualities are excellent. 
Some of the South Carolina rock is. however, being manufactured 
by special methods into a very high grade or double superphosphate. 
Probably much rock remains in the South Carolina fields for future 
use. 

THE FLORIDA FIELDS. 

The phosphate deposits of Florida are by far the most extensively 
mined in the world. 

The rock as a whole is of such excellent quality and produces such 
uniformly high-grade acid phosphate that it is* used (where condi- 
tions permit) in preference to any other phosphate, with the possible 
exceptions of that from the Ocean Islands and Christmas Island. 
There are two commercially important classes of phosphate rock in 
Florida — the hard-rock phosphate and the land-pebble phosphate. 

The hard-rock fields extend north and south along the west coast 
of the peninsula for a distance of 100 miles. The present land- 
pebble phosphate regions lie south of the hard-rock fields, in Polk 
and Hillsboro Counties. 

The methods of mining these two classes of phosphate rock differ 
considerably. In the hard-rock workings the material is either 
dug out or dredged. In the pebble deposits hydraulic mining is 
employed. Practically all of the hard-rock phosphate is shipped 
abroad and sold on a guaranty of 77 per cent tricalcium phosphate. 
The pebble phosphate is used Doth in this country and abroad, being 
sold on guaranties ranging from 60 to 75 per cent tricalcium 
phosphate. 

In order to remove the impurities, the material which comes from 
the mines is subjected to a washing process, during which much valu- 
able phosphate is washed out with the foreign material. It is esti- 
mated that the actual amount of phosphoric acid lost in preparing 
the rock for the market is nearly twice as great as the quantity saved. 

In a bulletin on these deposits the Bureau of Soils suggests pos- 
sible means of utilizing this waste material. It may profitably be 
applied to muck soils deficient in mineral phosphates. Methods for 
concentrating the phosphoric acid of these wastes are now being 
investigated. 

The average cost of preparing hard-rock phosphate for the market 
is not less than $3.50 per ton, while the finished pebble product costs 
about $2 per ton. 

Foreign corporations are large operators in Florida, but they do 
not control a major part of the output, and no individual foreign- 
controlled plant is as large as some of those operated by American 
capital. In the hard-rock fields there are about 20 companies en- 
gaged in mining operations. The total annual capacity of the operat- 



22 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OE THE UNITED STATES. 

ing plants is about 750,000 tons. In the pebble regions 15 companies 
are operating, with a combined capacity of over 1,600,000 tons. 

Owing to various causes, the hard-rock industry is at rather a low 
ebb, many plants being entirely closed down. The pebble industry, 
however, continues to grow uninterruptedly. 

THE UTAH, IDAHO, WYOMING, AND MONTANA FIELDS. 

These deposits are of vast extent, far surpassing in tonnage those 
of South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, and Arkansas combined. 
The latest estimate of the quantity of high-grade rock running 70 
per cent or better in phosphate of lime is 2,500,000,000 tons, but there 
is fully four times as much material containing from 25 to 60 per 
cent phosphate of lime. It is highly important that mining opera- 
tions should be so conducted that this vast quantity of lower grade 
rock will be available for future use. 

A few thousand tons of the better grade of phosphate have been 
shipped to the Pacific coast and there made up into acid phosphate 
for the California trade, but the rock is mined to a very limited 
extent, since the demand for fertilizers in the West is not great 
and the fields are too far from the eastern market to make ship- 
ments of the phosphate profitable. Furthermore, title to many of 
the locations is in dispute and much of the land has been withdrawn 
from entry. This last fact is important, among other reasons, in 
that it offers an opportunity to insist upon the introduction of 
methods of mining which will minimize wastage. The United 
States Geological Survey has published two excellent reports on 
these fields, and the Bureau of Soils has issued a bulletin on the 
deposits, handling the subject from an agricultural and chemical 
standpoint. 

THE TENNESSEE FIELDS. 

The Tennessee phosphate fields are next in importance to those of 
Florida. They have frequently been described, but changing con- 
ditions, recent developments, and new methods of mining and han- 
dling the material make this field of special interest. 

The brown-rock phosphate of Maury County, Tenn., contrary 
to popular opinion, is far from exhausted, and many deposits of 
high-grade rock in other counties have scarcely been touched. De- 
posits of high-grade rock are yet to be mined in Davidson, Hick- 
man, Sumner, and Giles Counties. Modern mining methods now save 
much of the material which was formerly wasted. Pioneer methods 
of extracting the rock are still employed in the brown-rock regions, 
this practice being attended with much loss of good material. 

Vast quantities of phosphatic limestone underlie and occur in the 
phosphate beds. This limestone frequently contains a high per- 
centage of phosphoric acid, and steps should be taken to prevent its 
loss in mining the phosphate. In an appended report suggestions 
are given for utilizing this phosphatic limestone. 

The cost of producing brown-rock phosphate for the market varies 
according to the nature and location of the deposit. Owing to the 
increased cost of labor and the installation of expensive plants, the 
cost of production is considerably above what it was in former 
years. A conservative average for mining and loading the rock 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 23 

f. o. b. at the plant is $2.50 per ton. There are fully 30 companies 
owning brown-rock property in Tennessee, but during the spring 
of 1911 only 15 of these were actually mining the phosphate. The 
combined capacity of the operating plants was 900,000 tons per year, 
but few were mining full time and some only intermittently. The 
marketed output of brown-rock phosphate for 1910, according to 
the figures of the United States Geological Survey, was 329,382 
tons. This is a substantial gain over the production of the pre- 
vious year. Mining operations in the brown-rock fields are not 
now as active as in former years. This is due to the increased cost 
of mining the rock and to the enormous development of the Florida 
phosphate fields, the rock from the latter region being usually pre- 
ferred to the Tennessee rock by the manufacturers of acid phosphate. 

Important areas containing blue-rock phosphate lie in Hickman, 
Lewis, and Maury Counties. Instead of removing the overburden, 
as is done in the case of the brown-rock phosphate, the blue rock is 
mined by drifting in on the vein or stratum and either blasting or 
drilling out the rock. This method of mining is rather expensive, 
but the blue rock does not have to be washed, and frequently drying 
is unnecessary. Owing to the fact that the beds vary both in thick- 
ness and quality and because some of the deposits occur at rather 
inaccessible points, the rock has not been mined to the same extent 
as the brown-rock phosphate. The marketed output for 1910 from 
the figures of the United States Geological Survey was 68,806 long 
tons. The cost of mining blue rock is approximately the same as 
that of mining brown phosphate, namely, $2.50 per ton. 

Both the brown and blue phosphate fields are rapidly passing into 
the hands of the large fertilizer corporations. These companies 
have installed expensive plants and are practicing modern mining 
methods. They consume much of the rock at their own fertilizer 
plants in the production of acid phosphate. The rock for this pur- 
pose contains from 65 to 72 per cent phosphate of lime and less than 
6 per cent iron and alumina. 

The white phosphate of Perry and Decatur Counties, Tenn., has 
not been mined since 1908. The rock occurs in pockets, and it is 
only by thorough prospecting that the extent of the deposits can be 
determined. Some of the rock is very rich, running as high as 85 
per cent phosphate of lime. 

During the spring of 1911 considerable prospecting was being car- 
ried on west of the Tennessee River, and plans were under way to 
resume mining operations on the east side of the river. The de- 
posits are within 6 to 10 miles of the above-mentioned stream, which 
will no doubt be utilized in transporting the rock to the market. 

THE ARKANSAS FIELDS. 

The Arkansas phosphate deposits are not generally regarded as 
being of great economic importance, since, compared with the Florida 
and Tennessee deposits, the rock is rather low grade. The deposits 
are well situated, however, to supply the growing demand for fer- 
tilizers west of the Mississippi River. The developed region occurs 
in the northwestern part of Independence County, along Lafferty 
Creek, but the deposits extend over a considerable area in north- 
central Arkansas, the phosphate horizon being recognized in Stone, 
Izard, Searcy, Marion, Baxter, and Newton Counties. 



24 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

The rock is of sedimentary character and occurs usually in two 
horizontal layers, one directly overlying the other. The first or 
upper layer is 3.5 to 6 feet thick and contains from 55 to 60 per cent 
phosphate of lime. Directly under this is another layer from 2 to 4 
feet thick, closely, resembling the upper stratum but of such low 
grade that it can not be shipped with profit. It is highly important, 
however, that mining operations should be so conducted that this 
material will be available for future use. 

Only one company is operating in the Arkansas fields, but consid- 
erable phosphate property is owned both by individuals and cor- 
porations. These are only waiting for the market to become more 
active before starting mining operations. Fully 50,000 tons of rock 
have been mined in Independence County. The output is now ship- 
ped to Little Rock, Ark., and made into acid phosphate for the 
Arkansas and Texas fertilizer trade. The demand for fertilizers is 
constantly increasing in these States and the output from the Arkan- 
sas fields is growing to meet this demand. 

THE KENTUCKY FIELDS. 

Within the last few years considerable interest has been manifested 
in the phosphate deposits of northern Kentucky, but conflicting re- 
ports concerning the value of these fields have confused the prospec- 
tive investor and discouraged mining development. Prospecting has 
been carried on intermittently in Fayette, Woodford, Scott, and Jes- 
samine Counties, but no satisfactory, unbiased report on the deposits 
has yet been published. 

In the vicinity of Midway, Woodford County, deposits of very 
high-grade material have been found, but the natural exposures are 
few, so thorough prospecting is required to determine the depth and 
lateral extent of the deposits. Samples have been taken from various 
places in Scott, Jessamine, Woodford, and Fayette Counties, and 
though examination of these fields has been necessarily superficial, 
sufficient data has been collected to show that phosphate occurs in 
paying quantities. The material occurs very much as does the brown- 
rock phosphate of Tennessee, which it resembles closely both in ap- 
pearance and quality. The rock will have to be washed to free it 
from a matrix of foreign material, but this washing process is now 
practiced with great success in the brown-rock region of Tennessee. 

Owing to the high price of land and the heretofore meager data 
regarding these deposits, the Kentucky phosphate fields have not as 
yet been developed. Plans are under way to start mining in the 
vicinity of Midway at an early date, and since these fields are well 
situated to supply the demand for fertilizers in the Middle West, 
the material will no doubt find a ready market. 

NITROGEN FERTILIZERS. 

NITBATE DEPOSITS. 

In the exploration of the desert basins and neighboring arid areas 
attention has been directed especially to the discovering and location 
of deposits of nitrates. Many such deposits have been reported, but, 
on investigation, have proved to be of little or no economic im- 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 25 

portance, either because of their limited extent, inaccessibility, or 
difficulty of working, and, generally, for all three of these reasons. 
Nevertheless, the interest in the possible location of nitrates is con- 
tinually becoming greater. The bureau has, in confidence, been ad- 
vised of several deposits of supposedly great importance and value. 
These are being examined as fast as circumstances will permit. Some 
of the reported finds have attracted considerable attention, as the de- 
posits of Pena Blanca, near Mesquite, Dona Ana County, N. Mex.; 
Queen, Eddy County, N. Mex.; Briggs, Yavapai County, Ariz.; 
Gerlach, Washoe County, Nev. ; Lovelocks, Humboldt County, Nev. ; 
Grass Valley, Utah; Candelaria, Presidio County, Tex.; Ojinaga, 
Chihuahua, Mexico; Death Valley, Cal. ; Blaine County. Idaho; 
Pocatello, Idaho, and Soda Springs, Idaho. As yet no deposit of 
known commercial importance has been exploited. But that such a 
deposit may be found is not impossible. 

The origin of the nitrate deposits is not definitely known. Flood 
waters from higher levels, on evaporating, may be responsible for 
some of the reported finds of nitrates lying along the watercourses 
of arid areas. In the majority of cases the nitrates are the product 
of azoto-bacteria in the surface soils, which find especially favorable 
conditions for their activities in the alternations of temperature and 
moisture conditions at certain seasons. In other cases the nitrates 
are more or less obviously formed from the bacterial decomposition 
of such organic substances as bat guanos, common in caves, the 
nitrates remaining on the floor of the cave or seeping through the soil 
to appear elsewhere. 

Nitrates are known to leach through the soil with exceptional 
readiness and are thus accumulated in the seepage waters. On 
evaporation at the surface of soils or porous rock masses, there is a 
surface deposition of soluble material and, when nitrates have been 
formed, these would tend to accumulate more rapidly, relatively, 
than other common mineral salts. Some such mechanism is probable, 
for it is common to find the surface crusts of nitrate deposits con- 
taining as much as 90 per cent or more of sodium or potassium 
nitrates or a mixture of these salts, while the material a short dis- 
tance from the surface seldom contains more than a few per cent and 
commonly less than a fraction of 1 per cent of nitrates. 

These facts, perfectly well known to soil experts, seem to be quite 
unknown to miners and prospectors generally who everywhere seem 
quite convinced that a surface deposit of nitrate necessarily indicates 
"richer" material underneath. Reports of large deposits are fre- 
quently made on very slim surface observations. 

These natural deposits of " nitrates " are in no essentials different 
from the artificial niter beds, formerly used throughout the world 
generally, and yet extensively worked in India. The value of a natu- 
ral deposit of nitrates is much exaggerated in the popular mind. 
Small beds are probably quite common in desert regions and will be 
frequently reported as these regions become better known and will 
generally be disappointments to the discoverers as having no com- 
mercial importance. Nevertheless, a large bed of nitrate, with water 
accessible, would have considerable commercial value. What that 
value would be is entirely problematical, for there is no American 
experience on which to base estimates. The labor and other economic 
as well as physical conditions are far different in Chile or wherever 



26 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

such deposits are now worked. Moreover, the importance of a 
" mine " of nitrates lies mainly with the manufacturers of explosives. 
The popular impression that the Chile saltpeter coming to the 
United States goes mainly into fertilizers is quite far from the truth. 
The proportion thus used has been estimated by different experts 
engaged in the trade at widely varying figures from 60 per cent 
down. From recent estimates of the Bureau of the Census, about a 
fifth of the importations goes to the fertilizer trade. Nitrates always 
will be in demand for certain special and highly intensive cultiva- 
tions where very prompt and easily controlled results are demanded, 
as with greenhouse work, or with certain truck and fruit crops. 
For general farming other forms of nitrogen carriers seem to be find- 
ing more favor, and it is not probable that the location of even large 
deposits of nitrates would bring the selling price to a figure at which 
they could be freely used. 

OEGANIC AND OTHER NITROGEN CAREIERS. 

Enormous quantities of cottonseed meal are produced annually, 
but its value as a cattle feed is rapidly taking it out of the market 
as a nitrogen fertilizer. Tankage and slaughterhouse products and 
fish scrap are important, but far from sufficient resources. It is 
worth noting that large and potentially valuable amounts of fish 
scrap from the salmon and other canneries of Alaska and the Pacific 
slope are being almost entirely wasted, a state of affairs which should 
no longer be tolerated. The production of artificial "atmospheric " 
fertilizers like calcium cyanamid and basic calcium nitrate is of pos- 
sible importance, but somewhat doubtful, because of dependence on 
much cheaper power sources than are now found in this country. The 
modern tendency to depend largely on the employment in the rota- 
tion of a leguminous crop accompanied by symbiotic bacterial activi- 
ties seems to have a sound economic justification for general farming. 

AMMONIUM SULPHATE. 

There is a very important source of nitrogenous fertilizers in this 
country, which has not been adequately developed, and to which, 
therefore, the bureau is now giving attention, the production of 
ammonium salts from bituminous coal in the coke and gas ovens. 
Some ammonia is also produced in the preparation of " bone black " 
from bones and animal wastes. Ammonia can also be obtained from 
the gases of blast furnaces ; this is done abroad, but not in the United 
States. 

It has recently been stated by an eminent authority that the United 
States cokes nearly as much coal as do England and Germany to- 
gether, but the United States does not produce one-sixth as much 
ammonia as do the foreign countries cited. On the average the 
coals of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Alabama can yield enough 
ammonia to furnish 1 per cent of their weight of coal as ammonium 
sulphate. The increasing demand for this salt, together with the 
increasing realization among American manufacturers that con- 
tinued success requires the exploitation and utilization of all by- 
products, is bringing about the abandonment of the old and wasteful 
"beehive" coke oven and the substitution of modern "by-product" 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 27 

ovens, with appropriate devices for collecting coal tars, ammonia, 
and other gaseous products useful for power development, heating, 
etc. So valuable are these by-products that it is currently reported 
one plant in Alabama actually returns to the coal shipper the coke 
produced and a royalty on the same for the privilege of obtaining 
the by-products. 

From the amount of coal which is coked in the United States the an- 
nual production of ammonium sulphate should approximate 640,000 
tons. Far less than this is actually produced, the figures for 1910 
being 35,124 tons, valued at $1,841,062. Since these figures were 
compiled, however, there has been an increase of about 25 per cent in 
the number of by-product ovens installed, and doubtless there is a 
corresponding increase in the ammonium sulphate produced. The 
amount imported for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1911, is 103,743 
tons, valued at $5,301,334. This importation is less than that for the 
year 1910. 

It is impracticable to determine with any certainty the cost of pro- 
duction for ammonium sulphate, owing to the wide variations in the 
value of the other products obtained at the same time — namely, coke, 
gas, and tar. At present a fair average figure would be in the neigh- 
borhood of $43 per ton. But considerable variations from this 
figure might apply to the various plants. The selling price of am- 
monium sulphate at the principal distributing points on the Atlantic 
seaboard is approximately $3.10 per 100 pounds. 

Several processes for producing ammonia synthetically from at- 
mospheric nitrogen are now receiving more or less attention. It is 
reported that Frank and Caro have devised such a process, the suc- 
cess of which, however, depends upon cheap power. Similar remarks 
apply to the recently announced invention of Haber and Le Rossig- 
nol. In the United States, at least, no such process promises to have 
any commercial importance in the near future. 

POTASH FERTILIZERS. 

THE STASSFUBT SALTS. 

At the present time the United States, in common with the rest of 
the world, depends mainly on the deposits of soluble potash salts 
coming from Stassfurt, or more properly the Magdeburg-Halberstadt 
region of Germany. The United States takes nearly a fifth of the 
entire output of the mines and more than half of the amount ex- 
ported from Germany. Salt mines containing workable amounts of 
potash are known elsewhere, as at Kalusz, in the Carpathian Moun- 
tains of Galicia, Hungary; on the right bank of the Rhine, in Bel- 
gium; at Elsass, Upper Alsatia; and a small deposit reported in 
Chile; but these are not worked to an extent which appreciably 
affects the world's supply, and none of their output comes to the 
United States. India still produces a considerable quantity of 
saltpeter or potassium nitrate (KN0 3 ) from artificial "niter beds," 
and some of this material comes to the United States, but apparently 
in a somewhat sporadic manner. The amount of saltpeter coming 
into the United States in 1911, up to September 1, was 2,988 tons, 
valued at $198,880. The major part of the saltpeter coming into 
the country goes into fireworks, brown powders, and similar ex- 
plosives, and but little, comparatively, goes into fertilizers. 



28 FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Practically, the potash fertilizers of the United States are pre- 
pared from the Stassfurt salts, of which the principal ones are: 

Kainite. — A hydrated double salt of magnesium sulphate and 
potassium chloride, MgS0 4 .KC1.3H 2 0. Theoretically, this salt con- 
tains 18.9 p'er cent of potash, K 2 0. The commercial product contains 
approximately 12.5 per cent potash. The imports of kainite during 
the fiscal year ended June 30, 1911, was 586,475 long tons. The value 
at Hamburg was approximately $4 per long ton. On the Atlantic 
seaboard of the United States it costs, at present, approximately 
$8.25 per short ton. 

Muriate of potash (or potassium chloride, KCl). — Theoretically, 
this salt contains 63.1 per cent potash, K 2 0. The commercial prod- 
uct contains 42 to 62 per cent potash. The imports for the fiscal year 
ended June 30, 1911, were 192,505 long tons. The value at Hamburg 
was approximately $33.50 per long ton. At the Atlantic seaports of 
the United States it costs, at present, approximately $40 per short 
ton. 

Sulphate of potash (or potassium sulphate, K^O^). — Theoreti- 
cally, this salt contains 54.03 per cent potash, K 2 0. The commercial 
product contains from 48 to 53 per cent potash. The imports for the 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1911, were 47,441 long tons. At Hamburg 
the value was about $41 per long ton. At the Atlantic seaports of 
the United States it costs, at present, about $46.50 per short ton. 

Manure salts, or a mixture of the chlorides and sulphates of potas- 
sium, sodium, magnesium, and calcium, containing from 15 to 40 per 
cent potash according to grade. The imports for the fiscal year 
ended June 30, 1911, were 160,106 long tons. The value at Hamburg 
was about $8 per long ton. It costs now at the American ports on the 
Atlantic about $13.30 per short ton. 

The imports of potassium salts going mainly into fertilizers dur- 
ing the fiscal year ended June 30, 1911, were as follows : 



Salts. 



Quantity. 



Value. 



Muriate 

Sulphate 

Kainite 

Manure salts. 
Nitrate 



Pounds. 
431,215,560 
106,268,142 
1,313,700,000 
358,637,000 
9,277,547 



$6,449,576 

1,952,368 

2,637,106 

1,265,863 

282,549 



Total. 



12,587,462 



The above values refer to port of shipment, and would be con- 
siderably augmented at the prevailing prices in the United States. 

The following quotation is from a recent letter by an official of 
the German Kali Works : 

In this connection we would say that we have recently been furnished with 
an official explanation of the expression " kainit," which is as follows: 

" The ordinary commercial term ' kainit ' is used not to denote one single min- 
eral of definite composition, but to embrace a group of kainit salts — kainit, hart- 
salz, and sylvinit — as they occur naturally and by processes of transition in the 
potash deposits in Germany. 

" The kainit seams, as tbey were formerly mined, are met with now only 
very occasionally throughout the many potash mines, so that the ' kainit ' salts 
are now obtained from most of the mines in the form of hartsalz and sylvinit. 
The chemical composition of these varies not only according to the mines from 
which they are obtained, but also [they] fluctuate in composition from the same 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 29 

mine according to the deposit and the method of mining. The above three salts 
are to outward appearance very difficult to distinguish, which greatly increases 
the difficulty of mining. For this reason the potash syndicate only guarantees 
the minimum amount of pure potash (K 2 0), which is the valuable ingredient so 
far as agricultural purposes are concerned. So far as the form in which the 
potash is present and the amount of other concomitant salts are concerned, no 
guaranty is made for the above reasons. In supplying kainit, i. e., the kainit 
salts at their full value, the minimum amount of 12.4 per cent potash (K 2 0) 
alone is guaranteed." 

As you are doubtless aware some authorities formerly held that the potash 
in kainit was really in the form of sulphate. We are now officially advised 
that this is not so, but that the pure kainit has the same formula as was 
established many years ago by Rammelsberg ; namely : 

KCl.MgS0 4 .3H 2 0. 
Since the potash in hartsalz and the potash in sylvinit are also in the form of 
chloride, there is no chemical reason for making any particular distinction be- 
tween these materials when they are sold in the ground state in the market. 
Therefore, kainit, hartsalz, and sylvinit are now grouped together as distin- 
guished from carnallit. In the American trade this distinction of carnallit is, 
of course, of no importance, as carnallit is never imported. The syndicate 
therefore divides the raw potash salts into two groups : 
First. Carnallit salts. 

Second. Noncarnallit salts (kainit, hartsalz, sylvinit). 
For both groups only a minimum guaranty of potash is given, as the potash 
alone fixes the value and forms the basis for the calculation of prices. No ac- 
count is taken of the other constituents, which are only of a secondary impor- 
tance from a manurial standpoint. 

From the above you will note that there is a marked similarity between the 
system of classification of American railways and that of the classification of 
potash salts. In the railway classification " nigs is pigs " and in the potash 
classification " kainit is kainit." 

MINOK SOURCES. 

Enormous stores of potassium exist in the United States, and now 
that public attention has been drawn to the matter it is probable 
that some of them, at least, will soon be utilized on a commercial 
scale. Such materials as wool washings have long been known to 
be an available source of potash. The vinasses from American 
sugar mills are quite large in the aggregate, though no reliable esti- 
mate has yet been made. Frequently they run quite high in potash 
as well as in other substances having a commercial value, at least, for 
local consumption. Much less important, but still far from negligi- 
ble, are the pomaces from wine presses. 

The amount of sawdust produced annually by the cutting of our 
forests amounts to about 5,850,000 tons, containing approximately 
5,200 tons of potassium carbonate. At this rate the annual sawdust 
production should, as a source of potash, be worth about $250,000. 
This is probably a rather liberal estimate, and, considering the wide 
distribution of material, the location and character of the product, 
sawdust seems to be a very minor possible source of potash. 

Hardwood ashes from Canada conie into this country to a small ex- 
tent. Late figures are not available, but for the fiscal year ended 
June 30, 1910, the importation was 5,020 tons, valued at $60,220. The 
State experiment stations value the material at $9 to $12 per ton, 
according to analysis. The average price at present is about $12 per 
ton. These ashes are sold as fertilizers to some extent on the New 
England market. An appreciable, though not accurately known, 
portion is taken by soap makers, glass factories, and other manufac- 
turing interests. The smoke from wood fires contains carbonates 



30 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

and sometimes other salts of potassium, and the smoke and fumes 
from various industrial operations, as, for instance, cement works, 
are known to contain frequently some soluble potash salts, usually the 
chlorides. It is reported that in Russia the stalks of sunflowers 
grown on otherwise waste land are used as a source of potash. But 
even were it practicable to collect potash from such sources it is very 
doubtful if it would prove a sufficient and reliable supply for ferti- 
lizer needs. 

DESERT BASINS. 

The popular mind turns to the expectation of a " mine " of potash 
or to a large deposit of it, and naturally looks for either in the more 
arid sections of our country. That surface or buried deposits of 
salts with segregated layers of potash salts might exist in such 
regions has long been a cherished hope of the scientist, although the 
advance of knowledge concerning these regions has rather dimin- 
ished than increased this hope. Color has been lent to popular 
belief in the presence of potash salts in arid regions by the rela- 
tively high proportion of potash to other salts sometimes observed 
in " alkali " — the accumulation of soluble salts at or near the surface 
of the soil. Such occurrences are, however, elusive, rendered more 
so frequently by the manner of stating the analytical data. Some 
hundreds of analyses of alkali soils and crusts made by the Bureau 
of Soils have been inspected, and all the cases showing more than 
0.5 per cent potash in the soil are given in Appendix F. 

Up to the present time no surface deposits containing commercial 
quantities of potash salts are known in the desert basins. From the 
information which has now been gathered, it is improbable that there 
are any such deposits. But this is not certain, and there is a chance 
that segregated beds of potash salts may occur in some of the buried 
salt deposits. Apparently the best prospects are in the Humboldt Basin 
in Nevada, where the Geological Survey is now drilling, with lesser 
prospects in the Surprise, Warner, and Christmas Valleys of Oregon, 
and the Salton Basin of California. An enormous evaporation must 
have taken place to deposit any considerable quantity of potash from 
such natural waters as are now known entering the desert basins, an 
evaporation possibly greater than there is reason to believe actually 
took place. As there is no evidence that high concentration of potash 
existed in the earlier drainage, or that any selective action ever took 
place, the existence of potash beds in the arid regions of this coun- 
try can not be predicted with any confidence. On the other hand, 
the existing data do not justify a positive opinion to the contrary, 
and an examination of the desert basins is far more than justified, 
especially as other valuable substances, such as saltpeter, niter, 
alunite, phosphorites, borates, etc., are thus being brought to light. 

The soluble salts of potassium are usually classed with the so-called 
" salines," including such easily soluble salts as sodium chloride or 
common salt, sodium carbonate or " soda," sodium sulphate or Glau- 
ber's salt, and the like. All known natural beds of such bodies have 
resulted by concentration of water solution. Whatever may have 
been the ultimate origin of the materials, the immediate source is 
nearly always the small quantities of salts extracted from exposed 
rocks by running or percolating waters and carried in the drainage. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 31 

All ground and surface waters carry varying quantities, usually 
small, of dissolved salts, and upon evaporation these salts are left 
behind in the final resting place of the waters. The ocean is the 
great depository of saline materials, and its high salinity has been 
acquired thus. But there are areas the drainage waters of which 
evaporate without reaching the ocean at all. Such are the Great 
Basin of Nevada and Utah and the smaller basins which cluster on its 
borders. Since these received their present topography their waters 
have not had egress to the sea, and such salts as these waters may 
have carried are still within the basins and represented by salty lakes 
or beds of saline material. 

At present the influx of salines to these basins is not large. Bain- 
fall is low and there is little opportunity either for the chemical 
decay which would free soluble salts from the rocks and for which 
water is necessary, or for the extraction and carriage of such salts 
as may have been freed. But this condition of low rainfall is prob- 
ably of no great antiquity. Old beaches, river deltas, terrace lines, 
etc., indicate that at a time geologically recent, though historically 
remote, the undrained basins of the Western States were nearly all 
filled with large and persistent lakes. There is evidence that this 
filling was several times repeated, and there is every reason to be- 
lieve that the filling or fillings corresponded to periods of greater 
rainfall or lower evaporation, or both and that they may be corre- 
lated with the successive periods of advance of the North American 
ice sheet, which periods are known collectively as the Glacial Epoch. 
Even these periods were not sufficiently rainy to cause the Great 
Basin to overflow, but the country was probably fairly well watered, 
and the supply of saline materials to the central lakes was much 
larger than at present. These salines must still be in the basins, 
either on the surface or as buried beds. 

Therefore, any potassium salts which have been freed from the 
rocks of any undrained basin are still within it, though it is always 
possible that they are so mixed with other salts or with alluvial sand 
or clay as to render their commercial utilization difficult or impos- 
sible. No segregated deposit of potassium salts has ever been dis- 
covered in the undrained basins, but explorations have been meager 
and directed to other ends, and this negative result is by no means 
conclusive. Indeed, segregated deposits of potassium salts are known 
in a very few localities, notably at Stassfurt, Germany. They have 
there resulted from the concentration of sea water. The salines of 
our undrained basins, with the possible exception of the Salton Basin, 
are altogether of continental origin. 

Being continental, the salines of any basin have been derived from 
the rocks immediately surrounding that basin. In general, rocks 
of marine sedimentary origin yield marine salts with sodium chloride 
greatly predominant; fresh water sedimentaries yield only small 
quantities of any salts. Igneous rocks yield salts determined by 
the decay of theparticular rock-forming minerals which happen to 
be present. From these several classes of rocks the salts are mainly 
salts of sodium. Very little or no potassium can be expected from 
sedimentary rocks of any kind or from the usual igneous rocks in 
which the sodium feldspars predominate. The only common rocks 
likely to give any appreciable quantity of potassium to the drainage 
are those in which the potassium feldspars (microcline and ortho- 



32 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

clase) are common. Practically, this means certain acidic lavas 
and granite. 

When a drainage water is evaporated the dissolved constituents 
separate as solids, certain solids being precipitated before others in 
perfectly definite order, depending upon the nature and composition 
of the mixture of constituents. The order of precipitation of the 
several salts from sea water is now fairly well known and in many 
cases at least the variation from this order which will take place 
with any given solution, such as lake water, can be fairly well pre- 
dicted. In general, calcium carbonate and the sulphates of lime, 
anhydrite and gypsum, will be the first minerals to form. Sodium 
chloride is the next salt to appear as a solid, and in the case of sea 
water and many lake waters will continue to separate mixed with 
the salts of magnesium and potassium, until desiccation is complete. 
Magnesium and potassium salts tend to segregate in the mother 
liquors of the brines. Consequently, the potassium, in the form of 
various salts and mixed with relatively larger or smaller propor- 
tions of magnesium, sodium, and lime salts, is usually found in the 
upper (but not necessarily the top) layers of a salt deposit. Of 
course a succeeding influx of water and its desiccation may not only 
impose a second succession of salt layers, but may more or less com- 
pletely confuse the first layers. In fact, it is extremely difficult if 
not impossible to predict just where to look for potassium in a salt 
deposit. 

It should be noted also that the possible position of potassium 
deposits is by no means confined to the present surface of the 
basins. These basins usually contain considerable thickness of recent 
alluvial material, and it is not improbable that this material may 
cover or inclose salt beds laid down- during earlier periods. Between 
the past periods of greater rainfall and of lake expansion there inter- 
vened probably periods of aridity. The aridity may have been even 
greater than that of the present. These arid periods would correspond 
to the periods of glacial recession known to have alternated with the 
successive periods of advance. If this be so, and there is good reason 
for it, the great lakes of the rainy periods must have gone nearly 
or quite to dryness during the dry periods and the saline materials 
brought in and accumulated during the expansion must have been 
laid down as salt beds during the subsequent recession. Upon a 
return to more humid conditions such salt beds might be easily cov- 
ered by clay or other alluvium and thus preserved more or less from 
re-solution. This process of " freshening by desiccation," according 
to Russell and Gilbert, explains the freshness of some of the lakes 
which now dot the Great Basin region, and its reality in some cases 
at least can scarcely be questioned. Like the surface beds, such 
buried beds would be mainly salts of sodium, but there is always a 
chance that potassium might be associated therewith. The occur- 
rence and composition of saline springs, well waters, or salt seeps as 
indications of buried salt beds and the association of potassium salts 
therewith is of importance, as is also the recent geology of the par- 
ticular area. 

The Lahontan Basin.— The core of the Great Basin itself, in the 
central and northwestern part of Nevada, was, during the Quater- 
nary period of greatest lake expansion, a single great lake, the 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 33 

history of which has been admirably studied by Russell, 1 who gave 
it the name of Lake Lahontan. The basin which it filled is nearly a 
unit, the divides which separate its various parts being either low 
or discontinuous. The old lake is now represented by a few insig- 
nificent remnants — Lakes Pyramid, Winnemucca, Walker, etc. — and 
by a number of sinks, playas, and saline marshes. The salines now 
present on its surface or in the tiny lakes which dot it are trifling in 
amount and certainly far less than the salt which can reasonably be 
assumed to have been present in the waters of the larger lake. This 
fact was recognized by Russell, who accounted for the absence of the 
hypothetical salt by the assumption of burial under alluvial cover- 
ings. Succeeding investigation has strengthened this conclusion, and 
it may be considered reasonably certain that salt beds of some sort 
underlie the present floor. There is no assurance, however, that these 
beds are in segregated form. 

Still less can it be concluded that the buried beds contain any 
notable proportion of potassium salts. The rocks of the basin and 
its drainage area are largely igneous but usually low in potassium. 
The salts of the early lake were probably largely sodium salts. But 
Lahontan was a large lake, and its evaporation should have left a 
large quantity of saline material and a not insignificant quantity of 
potassium. There are no surface indications either for or against 
the occurrence of potassium, and the matter can be settled only by 
boring, as the Geological Survey is now doing in this area. 

The Bonneville Basin. — East of the Lahontan Basin, in north- 
western Utah and extending somewhat over the eastern boundary of 
Nevada, is another somewhat smaller basin, also a topographic unit 
and also once occupied by a great Quaternary lake known as Lake 
Bonneville, which has been thoroughly studied by Gilbert. 2 This 
lake has not entirely dried, its remnant being the Great Salt Lake. 
The Bonneville Basin differs from that of Lahontan, not only in 
area, but in being set mainly in Paleozoic sediments instead of in 
rocks of igneous origin. It is to be expected, therefore, that its 
salines are largely sodium chloride, with much smaller amounts 
of other salts. Apparently this is the case. There is, approximately, 
0.9 per cent potassium (K) in the lake at the present time, but this 
is too small to be of commercial importance and there is no satis- 
factory signs of buried deposits. It is not possible to say definitely 
that the lake has never gone entirely to dryness, but it is very probable 
that it has not. The topography of the basin is such that very in- 
tense aridity would be required to entirely desiccate it, and if this 
did happen little insoluble alluvium would reach the final bottom 
and the salts there laid down would scarcely be protected from later 
solution. Neither the probable geological history of the basin nor the 
character of the rocks in which it lies offers any great promise of the 
presence of potassium. 

The smaller basins of southern and central California and southern 
Nevada. — South and southwest of Lahontan the country is likewise 
lacking in seaward drainage and the early lake periods are likewise in 
evidence, .but there is a sharp difference in topography. Instead 
of falling into one or more great basins the area is cut by high and 

1 Monograph XI, U. S. Geological Survey, 1885. 

2 Monograph I, U. S. Geological Survey, 1890. 

-20827 3 — S. Doc. 190, 62-2 3 



34 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

continuous mountains into a number of small basins, each of which 
has its individual characteristics and history. It is these basins which 
constitute the present Mojave Desert and the Death, Armagosa, 
Saline, and similar valleys to the north and northeast. These basins 
are so imperfectly known that few reliable conclusions are possible. 
Their saline contents are apparently rather varied, but, so far as 
known, are exclusively salts of sodium. There are no known evi- 
dences of the occurrence of potassium and the known rocks are mainly 
sedimentaries or igneous rocks low in potassium. The basement 
granites of the Sierra Nevada are exposed in places in the western 
part of the area, especially toward the south, but these exposures have 
probably been uncovered only by recent erosion and are now much 
larger than in the recent past. On the whole, the evidence appears 
unfavorable to the occurrence of important potassium deposits, but 
it is insufficient and there is need for more detailed information 
concerning many of the units of the area. Buried salines are reported 
as existing in a few places, but their nature and associations are 
almost entirely unknown. 

On the extreme western border lies Owens Lake. This lake is 
very saline and contains about 0.35 per cent potassium (K). It 
is possible that methods may be devised for the commercial extrac- 
tion of this potassium, and investigations to this end are now under 
way in the laboratories. The general examination of the salines of 
this basin is also under way. 

The Salton Basin. — The great depression of southwestern Califor- 
nia, known as the Colorado Desert and now partially occupied by 
the Salton Sea, differs markedly from the basins just discussed in 
that it is separated from the sea by a low and recent divide and in 
that its recent history has been severely modified by the Colorado 
River. The Salton depression is apparently a northward extension 
of the rift which forms the Gulf of California, and seems to have 
been cut off from this gulf by the delta which the Colorado River 
has built across it from its debouchment on the eastern shore. The 
river has probably flowed alternately to the southward into the gulf 
as at present, and to the northward into the depression as it did for a 
time following the catastrophe of 1905. Continued flow into the 
depression would mean complete filling and flowing over the low 
divide to the south, and the recent beach line which surrounds the 
basin at about 40 feet above sea level was doubtless cut during the 
latest of these fillings. 

On the return of the river to its gulfward channel the great lake 
which had cut this beach line dried up and its saline contents were 
deposited in the so-called Salton Sink. Before the recent flooding 
the saline beds so produced were exploited for common salt, and 
their nature and composition is pretty well known. They were 
mainly sodium chloride, with small quantities of sodium sulphate 
and of magnesium salts. There were only very small traces of potas- 
sium. Any salt beds deposited by earlier similar fillings by the river 
since the shutting out of the sea, and later buried by alluvium, would 
doubtless be similar to this last one, and probably but little potas- 
sium would be therein. 

The case of an earlier marine filling is somewhat different. It is 
possible, though not certain, that the delta of the Colorado was 
built across the gulf while it was occupied by the sea, and that an 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 35 

arm of the ocean was thus gradually cut off from its seaward con- 
nection and gradually evaporated after this severance was effected. 
Did this occur, the conditions would approach those which existed 
at Stassfurt, and it is possible that similar segregated potassium 
beds might have been deposited. But the existence of the cut-off 
sea arm is uncertain, and, at the best, its volume was relatively 
small, and its possible saline deposition far smaller than at Stassfurt. 
The solution of this problem may require deep borings into the 
basin. A careful examination of certain features of the regional 
geology, notably the recent uplifted hills along the northern border. 
is now in progress and is expected to furnish important information 
bearing on the problem. 

The lake basins of southeastern Oregon and northeastern Califor- 
nia. — North and northwest of the Lahontan Basin lies a region which 
greatly resembles in topography the region to the south and south- 
east already discussed. However, a greater rainfall and a steeper 
relief have prevented the entire desiccation of most of the basins, 
and they are now occupied by shallow lakes. This region has been 
investigated and the nature and quantity of salines have been exam- 
ined in detail. Some of the lakes are moderately saline, but none 
are strongly so, and the salts are mainly salts of sodium. The 
analyses of samples collected in this region have not yet been com- 
pleted, and it is therefore impossible to state in detail the percentages 
of potassium in the various lakes. These percentages are probably 
low, but were they reasonably high the region would still have little 
commercial importance because of the small depth of the lakes (2 to 
15 feet) and the small quantity of water and dissolved salt they 
contain. 

There is little evidence of buried salines in most of the desert 
basins, but there is a possibility of their occurrence in the Surprise 
Valley in Modoc County, Cal., and in the Warner and Christmas 
Valleys in Lake County, Oreg. The last valley contains no large 
lakes. In all three of these valleys there are salt seep:;, and salt 
waters are occasionally encountered in wells. Furthermore, each 
valley was once the site of a large lake, and the saline contents ol 
these lakes have disappeared. In the Surprise Valley there is an 
unconfirmed but probably trustworthy report of the findings of 
sand strata cemented with salt. The region as a whole is one of 
recent basalt, carrying practically no potassium, and the " islands " 
of older acidic lavas which penetrate the basalt cover are few and 
small. Of the three valleys mentioned, the Surprise Valley seems 
to be the most promising. Its walls carry abundant exposures of 
what seem to be rhyolitic tuffs, probably fairly high in potassium, 
and which may have contributed largely to the valley salines. The 
chances for the occurrence of segregated potassium appear to war- 
rant further exploration. 

The basins of New Mexico. — Of the several detached undrained 
basins in New Mexico the largest — the Otero — has been examined in 
considerable detail. The surrounding rocks are nearly all sedimen- 
taries, and such few igneous exposures as exist are prevailingly low in 
potassium. Only traces of potassium were found in the drainage 
waters or in the brines or salt beds of the central playas, and the 
absence of potassium from the surface may be considered practically 
certain. Buried salines are possible, but not probable, and, even if 



36 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

they exist, there is no likelihood of their carrying potassium in com- 
mercially important quantities. 

The other and smaller basins of New Mexico are similar to the 
Otero in surrounding rock and in general features, and probably 
equally barren in potassium. 

The small basins bordering the arid area. — In addition to the 
undrained basins of the above groups there are (mainly just beyond 
the seaward borders of these groups) a few other areas now un- 
drained. Examples of these are Goose Lake of northern California, 
Harney and Malheur Lakes of east-central Oregon, the many " dry 
valleys" of the Colorado River drainage area in Arizona and 
southern Utah, etc. Almost without exception these basins are sepa- 
rated from some seaward drainage channel only by low divides over 
which discharge actually took place in very recent geologic times. 
These basins are really parts of the drainage areas of the various 
rivers to which they are contiguous and have been separated there- 
from simply by the great aridity of the present period or by some 
geologic accident, as a lava flow in the case of Harney and Malheur 
Lakes. Since these basins have recently discharged both water and 
salt into the ocean, they can not have retained any important 
quantity of salines, and in so far as the present inquiry is concerned, 
their importance vanishes. 

BETNES, WELLS, AND SALT DEPOSITS. 

Many, if not all, of the brines from American wells carry some 
potash salts, though generally in small proportion to the sodium 
chloride and other salts. This fact may be important for two 
reasons. In crystallizing out the sodium chloride by evaporating 
the water the potassium concentrates in the mother liquor or " bittern," 
and there is a possibility that the bitterns might prove available 
sources of potash ; and, again, the presence of potassium salts in a brine 
may prove a valuable guide as to the desirability of exploring a 
locality for beds of segregated salts. It happens that the Geological 
Survey is at this time especially interested in the composition of 
brines for other reasons. This bureau is therefore cooperating with 
the survey in collecting samples of brines and bitterns under 
standard conditions. Between 300 and 400 such samples have thus 
been collected from the States of New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 
West Virginia, Kansas, and California, and these are being analyzed 
in this bureau, with a view to having on record the most compre- 
hensive, complete, and carefully obtained data regarding salines 
ever brought together. Analyses of this character are very exacting 
and time consuming, but a number of these analyses have now been 
made, including data for bitterns, from upward of 50 wells. In 
all cases the content of potassium is quite small, in no case exceed- 
ing 0.2 per cent and generally much lower. Even though the aggre- 
gate amount of potassium obtainable from such brines be large there 
is no promise at present that they would have much economic sig- 
nificance. As pointed out above, the separation of potassium salts 
from a solution containing sodium salts is not an easy one from a 
commercial point of view. Possibly a low-grade manure salt might 
be produced commercially from some American brines, but it is very 
doubtful if the product would pay for the cost of evaporation and 
other necessary manipulations. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 37 

The results thus far obtained indicate, however, that further 
exploration of some of our deposits is desirable with a view to locat- 
ing segregated beds of potash salts. Very little precise knowledge 
is extant concerning these deposits. Usually the prospectors, either 
of wells or of rock-salt mines, have been content when they have 
reached paying layers of sodium chloride, and little or no effort has 
been made to explore further. It would probably be wise to make 
deeper borings, as, for instance, in some of the New York deposits, 
to determine whether or not beds of potash salts are below the pres- 
ent workings of sodium chloride. 

POTASH SILICATES. 

There are in this country many and large deposits of the potash 
feldspars, orthoclase and microcline, some of them carrying as high 
as 16 per cent potassium. These feldspars are frequently a promi- 
nent constituent of enormous occurrences of granite. Glauconite, 
the characteristic mineral of the greensand marls, is a hydrous sili- 
cate of iron and potassium occurring in large deposits in New Jersey 
and in the South Atlantic and Gulf States. Leucite, a potassium 
alumino-silicate found in lava flows; nepheline, muscovite — the com- 
mon potash mica — and other minerals increase the total of existing 
potash stores to a figure of amazing proportions. It is not sur- 
prising, therefore, that methods to abstract potassium from silicate 
rock-forming minerals has long attracted the attention of chemists 
and inventors. At the present time efforts in this direction are par- 
ticularly active. In Appendix G is given a list of some of the typical 
patents, but other inventors have, in confidence, given to the bureau 
the details of their methods. 

The natural potassium silicates, when finely ground so as to present 
a large surface to the action of water, dissolve to a certain extent 
and are completely hydrolized, yielding very dilute solutions of pot- 
ash. This is, in fact, the mechanism by which plants naturally obtain 
their needed potash, since most soils contain small fragments of 
orthoclase or microcline and other silicates which yield potash to the 
soil solution. In general, solution increases with temperature and, 
so far as known heretofore, hydrolysis increases with rise in tempera- 
ture. However, from experiments made with glass some years ago 
it seemed probable that heating feldspars and similar minerals with 
water to a moderately high temperature, 500° C. to 600° C. (and 
necessarily under high pressure), would result in more or less com- 
plete solution. The experiment was tried with a number of feld- 
spars, glauconite, etc., and it was found that high temperature and 
pressure actually seemed to depress the solvent action of pure water 
on the minerals tried. 

Besides water itself, various aqueous solutions and salt and salt 
mixtures have been tried in the hope of extracting potash from the 
silicate rocks. The great majority of these processes are, practically, 
modifications of the well-known and generally practiced laboratory 
method of J. Lawrence Smith, the essential feature of which is to 
fuse the silicate with calcium chloride. As an anarytical procedure 
in the laboratory the method is quite satisfactory. Undoubtedly, 
potash can be obtained in this way, but not necessarily on a com- 
mercial scale. The same statement holds for some of the other 



38 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

procedures proposed. But the majority of the methods that have 
been put forward for extracting potash from rocks are obviously 
absurd. Without at this time going into a critique of all the various 
methods proposed it is well to call attention to certain definite con- 
clusions coming from a consideration of the various methods. 

Nearly all of the methods proposed in their final stages involve 
the separation of a potassium salt from salts of sodium and other 
bases. This, as already pointed out, is not an easy thing to ac- 
complish on a commercial scale, although there are reasons for think- 
ing that it may be done under certain special conditions. Secondly, 
practically all these methods require the evaporation of large vol- 
umes of water, a very expensive procedure. Water has a relatively 
high specific heat ; that is, it requires more heat to raise a given mass 
of water 1 degree in temperature than is required for an equal mass 
of any other substance occurring in nature. Therefore, unless large 
supplies of very cheap fuel are available, an industrial operation re- 
quiring the evaporation of large volumes of water is objectionable. 
Spontaneous evaporation, especially in arid regions, is frequently 
urged as a merit of certain proposed schemes. These are to be re- 
garded, however, with extreme caution, for spontaneous evaporation 
implies a large area of shallow containers, and, generally, even if 
cheap land be available, the other costs of installation and main- 
tenance are prohibitive. 

It seems to have been clearly demonstrated that no method of ex- 
tracting potash from silicates has any commercial possibility if 
dependent only on the sale of the potash produced. By-products 
must have a market sufficient to pay for the cost of the raw materials, 
and sometimes more. Obviously, the raw materials must be obtainable 
cheaply and from a steady source of supply. So far as is yet known, 
no process has met these conditions except on a rather small scale. 
For instance, one of the patented processes now before the public 
employs ground orthoclase and acid sodium sulphate, and produces a 
pulverulent soda feldspar-albite, a very pure sodium sulphate, and 
hydrochloric acid, besides yielding practically all the potash in the 
form of chloride. The albite seems well adapted for glazes, certain 
types of tiles, etc., but has apparently a limited and uncertain market. 
There is a steady but very limited demand for the pure sodium 
sulphate, and there is available a small and steady supply of cheap 
acid sodium sulphate as a by-product from another industrial opera- 
tion. Consequently, potash can possibly be extracted from ortho- 
clase by this method at a profit. But the amount that can be produced 
is limited on the one hand by the cheap acid sodium sulphate availa- 
ble, and on the other by the market for the pure sodium sulphate pro- 
duced, and there is no immediate prospect that the available supply 
of potash in this country is to be greatly augmented from this source. 

It is well in this connection to warn the general public, which seems 
peculiarly prone to listen to promoters with " chemical " or " scientific " 
propositions. It is little short of folly to invest in such schemes 
before getting the advice of a competent and disinterested chemist or 
chemical engineer. Especially is this the case with the so-called 
secret processes. It may be laid down as a general rule, with prac- 
tically no exceptions, that secret processes are not for the layman or 
small investor. If a secret process has any real merit it is too valuable 
to already existing interests to be allowed to get away from them. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 39 

Every inventor knows this, or he will soon be made to realize it, if 
he has anything worth securing. 

For the nonexpert small investor to put his money into such schemes, 
without having secured competent expert advice from a reputable, 
disinterested source, is to indulge in wild and reprehensible gambling. 



Although the extraction of potash from silicate rocks, commer- 
cially, does not appear to be a promise of the near future, there is 
one mineral which offers interesting possibilities, namely, the basic 
alumino-potassic-sulphate, alunite. At Tolfa, near Rome, Italy, 
where large deposits of the mineral occur in massive form, it has 
long been used as a source of alum. The material is roasted and 
then leached, and the alum crystallized from the leachings on evapo- 
ration. The product obtained at Tolfa frequently has a reddish 
color, due to iron, and this reddish alum appears to be well known 
to the trade under the name of Roman alum. Large deposits of 
massive alunite are said to exist in Japan, but how far they are 
utilized has not been ascertained. Numerous deposits of alunite have 
been reported in the United States, the major deposits so far ex- 
amined being at Rosita Hills, Custer County, and in the Rico Moun- 
tains, Colo.; National Belle Mine, near Silverton, Colo.; and at 
Cripple Creek, Colo.; near Humboldt House, Nev. ; Alunite, Las 
Vegas, Nev. ; in several localities in Arizona ; Goldfield, Nev. ; at 
Tres Cerritos, Mariposa County, Cal. ; and a large deposit of the 
massive mineral about 8 miles southwest of Marysville, Utah. It is 
reported that alunite is the main constituent making up the mass of 
Calico Peak, Colo. Hitherto alunite deposits in this country have 
been regarded Avith interest mainly because of their well-known 
association with gold ores. 

Experiments with alunite show that with a moderate heating, fol- 
lowed by lixiviation, the product obtained is ordinary potash alum. 
With a somewhat higher and long continued heating sulphur trioxide 
(S0 3 ) is evolved, which can be conducted into water, thus yielding 
sulphuric acid (S0 3 -|-H 2 0=H.,S0 4 ). Lixiviation of the roasted 
mass yields a very pure solution of potassium sulphate. The leached 
residue seems very well adapted to compete with natural bauxite. 
Efficiency runs in the laboratory, which could probably be much 
bettered in practice, yielded, in dry crystals of potassium sulphate, 
83 per cent of the potash in the raw mineral. Further investigations 
of the possibilities of the mineral are now in progress. Regarding 
the commercial exploitation of the Colorado deposits little can yet 
be said, and further examination in field and laboratory are highly 
desirable. Recent reports from competent mining engineers indicate 
that the deposits at Goldfield are more extensive than formerly sup- 
posed. That they may have a value as a source of potash is by no 
means improbable. If the preliminary reports concerning the Utah 
deposits are confirmed these seem to have the greatest interest, not 
only on account of their character which makes them better adapted 
to manufacturing than the other deposits, but because of their posi- 
tion near large phosphate fields. Sulphuric acid, very easily ob- 
tained from the roasting of alunite, could be advantageously used in 
producing superphosphate; that is, two of the most valuable of 



40 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

fertilizer salts, potassium sulphate and superphosphate (monocal- 
cium phosphate) can be made at the same time, with practically but 
one by-product, artificial bauxite, for which there should be a good 
market. Experiments now in progress in roasting mixtures of 
alunite and rock phosphate promise some interesting results of 
possible economic importance. 

THE MANUFACTURE OF FERTILIZERS AT SALT LAKE. 

The eastern shore of the Great Salt Lake is rapidly becoming a 
great railroad center, and is potentially one of the most important 
distributing points in the country. It is in close proximity to the 
largest high-grade deposits of rock phosphate in the world, and to 
the best deposits of alunite in this country. It is better situated than 
any other point to utilize any valuable deposits which the desert may 
yield, such, for instance, as nitrates. In the smelter fumes at Gar- 
field and the other neighboring smelters it has at its door a vast 
source of material well suited to the production of the sulphuric acid 
needed in the manufacture of superphosphate — a material (the smelter 
fumes) which, by the way, has become a great public nuisance, and 
must be disposed of in some way. All the conditions point to Salt 
Lake City and Ogden as the great fertilizer manufacturing centers of 
the future. Hitherto the smelter interests have objected to convert- 
ing their fumes into sulphuric acid on the twofold ground that the 
people in their localities do not use fertilizers, and if they did use 
them, the production of acid would be far greater than the demand. 
It is doubtless true that attempts in this direction would at first lead 
to financial losses of magnitude. But there is good reason to be- 
lieve that if the smelters of Utah were to follow the suggestion here 
offered they could put high-grade fertilizers on the market so cheaply 
that in a very few years the agricultural interests of the surrounding 
territory would use the entire output, and an important industry 
would be developed. Obviously, it would be a public work of the 
first national importance to develop such an industrial center mid- 
way in the territory between the Mississippi River and the Pacific 
coast. 

THE PACIFIC KELP GROVES. 

The most promising source of potash in the United States is the 
beds of seaweed or kelp groves along the Pacific coast. Attention 
has been called to the value of the giant kelps from time to time, 
notably by Mr. David M. Balch, of Coronado Beach, Cal., who has 
given much time and energy to their investigation. The kelp groves 
are frequently very extensive. Dall reported in 1875 that there was 
a bed of bull kelp 25 square miles in extent northeast of St. Georges 
Island, Bering Sea. Setchell and Gardner have reported that Nere- 
ocystis is plentiful from the Shumagin Islands, Alaska, to Santa 
Barbara Channel, Cal. By far the most extensive beds lie along the 
southern coast from Point Sur to Magdalena Bay. 

That kelps have a value as a fertilizer has long been known. This 
has been attributed in part to their content of potash, in part to the 
fact that they decompose very readily and rapidly after being cut 
or broken from their anchorage, in part to their small content of 
iodine, and in part to their phosphate content. To a very limited 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 41 

extent and in a wholly occasional way, kelps have been used thus 
along the Pacific coast, They have long and quite extensively been 
used along the New England coast, where the torn kelp is thrown 
up on the shore in the fall by the heavy seas then prevailing and at 
a season following the harvest when labor can be spared for the 
gathering. In fact, kelp gathering is made, in many localities, a 
gala occasion. In England, Scotland, Ireland, the Channel Islands, 
Norway, and the coast of Brittany kelp is still gathered, more or 
less extensively and spread as a manure. Interest in this material as 
a manure has recently increased in England, and the Board of Agri- 
culture and Fisheries has issued a circular (Leaflet No. 254) concern- 
ing the use and value of British kelps for different types of soil and 
different classes of crop plants. 

For many years the European kelps were gathered as a source of 
iodine and the shore rights for gathering them were at one time very 
valuable. Gradually it became the custom to burn the kelp ; the ashes 
were collected from place to place by vessels making more or less 
regular collections, brought to Glasgow and there leached for their 
iodine. The residue containing notable quantities of potash and 
some phosphates were sometimes sold as fertilizers, sometimes simply 
discarded as waste of too little value to pay for the handling. But 
the world's supply of iodine was controlled from Glasgow. Later, 
when this supply was obtained from the mother liquors in the refin- 
ing of Chile saltpeter, the control of the output remained in Glas- 
gow, although the extraction of iodine from kelp was practically 
abandoned. Control of the production and distribution of iodine 
yet remains in Glasgow, except that Japan supplies its own needs 
from kelp, the industry having been revived in that country on the 
breaking out of the war with Russia. 

In Japan some varieties are also used for food products, known as 
kobu, konbu, or kombu, a dried material forming the basis of various 
dishes ; still other food preparations are known as " nori " kanten, 
a^ar agar, etc., and considerable quantities are gathered, baled, and 
shipped to China, forming the only supply of salt for some of the 
interior Provinces of that country. On the Pacific coast of the 
United States kelp is the basis of several small industries, the annual 
value of which is probably only a few thousand dollars. Certain 
varieties are made into curios and souvenirs. The most notable of 
these minor industries is the invention of Prof. Frye, of the Univer- 
sity of Washington, in which the salts are leached from the bulbs 
and larger stems of the " bull kelp " of Puget Sound, and the residue 
is seeped in sugar sirup with various added flavors. A sort of con- 
serve, much resembling candied citron, is obtained, which, for obvious 
reasons, has been named " seatron." 

The kelps of the Pacific coast of the United States are essentially 
different in certain respects from the Atlantic kelps and apparently 
from those of Japan. They yield a much higher percentage of 
potash (five or six times as much as the Atlantic kelps), but have a 
much lower percentage of iodine. Analyses have been made of oven- 
dried samples of the principal varieties of kelps from Puget Sound, 
the coast near Monterey, and the coast near San Diego. The aver- 
age of seven samples of the principal varieties shows the Puget 
Sound kelps to contain 30 per cent potassium chloride, and 0.16 per 
cent iodine ; the average of the six samples from Monterey shows 31 



42 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

per cent potassium chloride and 0.18 per cent iodine; and the aver- 
age of 30 samples from San Diego shows 23 per cent potassium 
chloride and 0.29 per cent iodine. It is doubtful, however, if there 
is actually any essential difference in the yield of potash from the 
northern and southern kelps. It does seem to be the case, contrary 
to popular belief, that the southern kelps are richer in iodine than 
the northern kelps. 

The principal kelp of thePuget Sound is the Nereocystis luetkeana, 
commonly known as bladder kelp or bull kelp, and is probably the 
only one which will justify harvesting. Rigg found specimens 70 feet 
long, though the average would probably fall considerably short of 
this. The average content of potassium chloride seems to be between 
30 and 35 per cent of the dry weight and the iodine content about 
0.15 per cent. Other varieties of kelp occur, the next most important 
one being Macrocystis, attaining a length up to 40 feet, with a con- 
tent of potassium chloride somewhat less and an iodine content some- 
what greater than the Nereocystis. A fair but conservative estimate 
of the weight of kelp surveyed in Puget Sound this summer is up- 
ward of 200,000 tons and it is reasonably certain that a complete 
survey of the region would considerably augment this figure. The 
Puget Sound kelps may be found wherever there is a rocky bottom 
to furnish anchorage for the " holdfasts " and there is at the same 
lime a rapid tide way. Apparently, it is essential to the growth of 
the kelp that the plants should be constantly laved in new masses 
of water. They will not grow well in quiet waters, which fact in- 
creases greatly the difficulties of a study of their life history and arti- 
ficial propagation. 

In the neighborhood of Monterey, Nereocystis is abundant, but the 
main kelp is Macrocystis pyrifera. This plant here sometimes attains 
a length of 150 feet. The potassium chloride content of the Monterey 
kelps is about the same as those of Puget Sound and the iodine con- 
tent somewhat greater. The tonnage of the kelp surveyed near Mon- 
terey is especially difficult to estimate, but lies probably between 
80,000 and 100,000 tons. As to how much this estimate is likely to be 
augmented by more complete surveys no definite statement can be 
made. The groves are relatively small until Point Sur is reached, 
and it may prove more desirable to gather the kelp in this region for 
local use as an organic manure, rather than to attempt to utilize it for 
factory manipulation and preparation of commercial fertilizers. 
Further information regarding this region is very desirable. 

From Point Sur south to Magdalena Bay occur large and fre- 
quently very dense groves of kelp. By far the most important va- 
riety is Macrocystis pyrifera, the next in importance being Pelago- 
phycus porra, with other varieties negligible in an economic sense. 
The groves in this region are on the exposed shores of mainland and 
islands where there are rocky bottoms and continued movement of 
water. Macrocystis grows generally at depths of 6 to 10 fathoms. 
Pelagophycus, called locally elk kelp and sometimes bull kelp, 
is found also in deeper waters, 12 to 18 fathoms. It is frequently 90 
feet in length and sometimes considerably longer. The groves in 
this region are often very large and very dense. Groves have been 
observed 5 miles in length and 1 or 2 miles in breadth. This past 
summer the area surveyed was about 85 square miles, of which over 
20 square miles was of very heavy growth. The area surveyed wa3 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 43 

probably not half the area of the groves from Point Sur to the 
Mexican line and certainly less than a quarter of all the groves from 
Point Sur to Magdalena Bay. 

The analyses of San Diego kelps, made this summer, indicated 
that they contained somewhat less potassium chloride than do the 
more northern kelps. That this is actually the case is doubtful, and 
is a conclusion that should be held in reserve, pending further data. 
It does seem that the San Diego kelps run higher in iodine than the 
more northern kelps. The enormous areas of the San Diego groves 
and their ready accessibility make them especially valuable. The 
tonnage surveyed this summer was probably about 8,000,000 tons. 

The principal kelp of the northern Pacific waters is Nereocystis. 
This plant is an annual, a fact of the utmost importance for its com- 
mercial exploitation. To harvest it at its best, and with due regard 
to the maturing of its spores and the maintenance of the groves, re- 
quires a nice judgment. 

Rigg concludes that it would be wise to refrain from harvesting 
in the Puget Sound until after July 15. Whether this date would 
be the optimum for Alaskan waters or those south of Cape Flattery 
must be determined by further observations. It is at least clear that a 
" closed season " should be maintained for this kelp and its con- 
geners, and there should be no further delay than is absolutely neces- 
sary to provide official supervision and policing of Nereocystis 
groves. With the Microcystis, which forms the principal groves 
of the southern Pacific waters, the case is somewhat different. This 
plant is probably perennial, although there is some uncertainty as 
to this fact. At least the plant lives for more than a year. Con- 
sidering the fruiting processes of this plant, described in technical 
detail in the appendices, it seems perfectly safe to cut it at least twice 
a year. It is claimed by many observers that if the fronds only of 
Macrocystis are cut away, and the stipes and holdfasts are not se- 
riously disturbed, the plants will reproduce in from 40 to 60 days 
practically as heavy a growth as before the cutting. This point is 
now under observation. Possibly it would be wise to fix a date after 
which cutting should not be permitted, at least for some months. 
In other words, a " closed season " may be found desirable for the 
Macrocystis groves. 

Supervision and possibly policing of the groves may be desirable 
for further reasons. If exploiters are permitted to tear out the 
plants, the groves may soon be depleted or entirely destroyed. If, 
however, the plants are cut at not to exceed 10 or 12 feet below the 
surface, the groves may be maintained indefinitely. Moreover, this 
depth is apparently the limit to which cutting devices may be made 
effective on a large scale. The desirability of supervising and po- 
licing the kelp groves is a matter of sufficient importance to justify 
immediate and serious consideration from the constituted authori- 
ties, and attention is called to the opinion of the Solicitor of the de- 
partment, given in Appendix I. 

The cutting and gathering of the kelp has not as yet been met with 
completely satisfactory results, and this is apparently the one de- 
tail lacking to insure success to the kelp industry. 1 A number 

1 One company operating on the Pacific coast claims to have met this problem success- 
fully. A device which might be employed is described in the Twelfth Annual Report of 
the New Jersey State Experiment Station, 1891, p. 201, and the Twenty-first Annual 
Report, 1900, p. 359. 



44 FEETILIZEE EESOUBCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

of mechanical devices have been suggested, and some of these have 
been tried out, but with moderate and qualified success. The prob- 
lem is a purely mechanical one, with no theoretical difficulties, so 
far as can be seen. It is reasonably certain that American ingenuity 
will solve the problem. It can hardly be considered even a serious 
one in forecasting the possibilities of a kelp industry. 

The data available is not sufficiently detailed to permit of an ac- 
curate forecast of the value of the kelp industry, or even a close ap- 
proximation to it. It is entirely sufficient, however, to give an idea 
of the limits between which the probable true value lies. 

The tonnage of kelp actually seen and mapped this past summer, if 
cut to a depth of 8 feet, was certainly in excess of 8,000,000 tons, con- 
taining at least 400,000 tons of potassium chloride, corresponding to 
5 per cent of the wet weight or 30 per cent of dry, worth at present 
prices upward of $16,000,000, or considerably more than the value of 
our present importations of all potassium salts. But excluding what 
may be found to exist in Alaska, it is very probable that less than a 
fourth of the standing kelp was mapped, and a vast majority of the 
important groves could be safely cut twice a season, so that it does 
not appear extravagant to say that the Pacific kelps at their best can 
yield over 6,000,000 tons of potassium chloride, with a value at pres- 
ent prices well over $240,000,000. There would also be recoverable 
over 19,000 tons of iodine, worth at current prices over $95,000,000. 
No such quantity of iodine is, nor so far as one can see, ever likely to 
be used. Importations appear to be irregular, but it would probably 
be conservative to say that even with much cheaper iodine only 
$1,000,000 worth annually can be marketed in this country, the cost of 
production being only a small fraction of this sum. Finally, admit- 
ting that the foregoing estimates may be extreme and taking all fac- 
tors into consideration, it is certainly safe to say that the Pacific kelps 
can easily be made to yield upward of 1,000,000 tons of potassium 
chloride annually, worth at least $35,000,000, and that the cost of pro- 
duction can largely, if not entirely, be covered by the value of the 
iodine and other minor products. The value of the present annual 
importations of potash salts from Germany is, in round numbers, 
$12,500,000. 

The food value of kelp is often questioned. Kanten, or agar-agar, 
or simply agar, is a gel produced from certain varieties of the 
Gelidia. These are, however, rock weeds rather than kelps, and have 
no importance in a consideration of the industrial uses of kelp. 
Kombu is produced by extracting the mineral salts from some varie- 
ties of Laminaria, drying and grinding or shredding the residue. 
In itself kombu seems to have but little food value, but is the basis 
of a number of dishes greatly affected by the Japanese. Inquiry 
among the Japanese merchants on the Pacific coast brought conflict- 
ing testimony, but it is probable that a small amount of kombu is 
now made in the United States. At the best it can hardly ever be- 
come more than a minor industry. 

The giant kelps which are of value as a source of potash present 
another question. In Alaska it is reported that cattle will eat the 
kelps quite readily, and there are occasional (though unofficial) 
reports of cattle having eaten the kelps of California. This suggests 
a possible utilization of the organic tissue of the kelps after the 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 45 

mineral salts have been extracted by water. Analyses of the kelps, 
however, show them to have on the average quite a low content of 
nitrogen, and presumably therefore of proteins, although kelp com- 
pares well with hay. It is very doubtful if the leached kelps would 
have any value as cattle feed other than as a " roughage " to be mixed 
with other feeds. 

Papers have been made from the organic constituents of Pacific kelps, 
some of unusual beauty and desirability as writing papers. The 
kelps lack fiber, however, and this must be supplied from some 
other source. Some of the desert plants, as the common yucca of 
southern California, have been used in this way experimentally and 
with apparently very good results. It is not probable, however, that 
kelp papers are to attain any great commercial importance so as to 
affect materially the use of kelp as a source of potash and iodine. 

The cutting of the kelp groves has been opposed to some extent 
on two grounds. It has been suggested that it might affect disas- 
trously the fishing. But the United States Fish Commission and 
such eminent authorities as Jordan have expressed the opinion that 
no food nor bait fishes of any economic importance frequent the 
kelp groves. Moreover, if the cutting of the kelps is confined to the 
surface material, as it should be, it seems altogether improbable that 
it could have any material effect on the fish life below. The second 
objection is that the cutting of the groves, and especially the larger 
groves along the lower California shores, will destroy a natural 
protection or breakwater, with possibly dire results from increased 
wave action, loss of harbors, abandonment of refuges for fishermen 
who run behind the kelp beds in heavy weather. This objection 
seems to have some real foundation, but has undoubtedly been much 
exaggerated. Probably no harbor of any importance would be seri- 
ously affected other than Santa Barbara, and even here it is very 
doubtful, if the kelp is properly cut, since the remaining stipes 
would still retain a great moderating influence on the seas. More- 
over, the harvesting of the kelp would be done probably at a season 
which would allow a renewed growth for protection purposes be- 
fore the season of bad weather. While satisfactorily positive state- 
ments can not be made regarding this matter until some actual expe- 
rience has been accumulated, it is probable that the value of the 
products from the harvested kelp would far more than compensate 
any untoward consequences which may reasonably be anticipated. 

In Europe it has been the practice to burn the kelp in piles on 
the shore. Much loss of potash and iodine resulted, and the residue 
contained much sand and formed lumps and cakes difficult to handle. 
Ovens or retorts have been tried there to a very limited extent, 
enough to show that better results could be obtained. European ex- 
perience, however, is of little value in predicting the best practice 
for the Pacific coast of the United States, where conditions of labor, 
fuel, and other factors of economic importance are quite different. 

Burning in ovens or retorts undoubtedly gives a better yield of 
potash and iodine. With a closed retort there is produced a mixture 
of gases of high illuminating and heating value, which can be util- 
ized in the heating of the retort itself or other retorts for the drying 
of kelp in preparation to its being burned, for the evaporation of 
aqueous lixiviates, or the generation of power. Tarry products and 



46 FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

oils are formed to some extent which can be readily collected. These 
probably will be found to have an economic value, although they 
have not been yet satisfactorily exploited. If the heating has been 
judiciously conducted, there is also found a charcoal of exceptional 
absorbtive and other physical properties, which gives it a commer- 
cial importance. On account of the careful heating required, oil is 
to be preferred as a fuel, and this, fortunately, is at hand on the Pacific 
coast in quantity and at a low figure. If the heating be not carefully 
controlled the melt is apt to cake badly and include many partly 
burned fragments. To get around this trouble, various infusible sub- 
stances in lump can be introduced advantageously. Balch has pro- 
posed lime, and rock phosphate has been suggested as yielding, after 
lixiviation, a more valuable residue. In the latter case the production 
of charcoal is abandoned. 

Burning in the open oven or one planned to permit the passage 
of air again utilizes quite well the heat value of the kelp which 
may be employed advantageously for drying and evaporation pur- 
poses. Combustible gases and charcoal are, however, lost, but satis- 
factory melts are obtained. Which is the more economical in cost 
of handling, open oven or closed retort, is yet to be determined, 
although both yield satisfactory melts. Both forms lend themselves 
readily to engineering arrangements for economical factory practice. 

When a properly burned melt is lixiviated and the mother liquor 
evaporated, postassium chloride crystallizes from the solution quite 
pure and in quantity, a mother liquor resulting which contains a 
mixture of salts, containing the chlorides and sulphates of sodium 
and magnesium, and including the iodides. 

Several methods suggest themselves for recovering the iodine. 
The mother liquor may be brought to dryness mixed with powdered 
pyrolusite and treated with sulphuric acid, as in the well-known 
laboratory procedure. Where chlorine is available it may be used 
to liberate the iodine from the concentrated mother liquor, the iodine 
being extracted in various ways, as by carbon tetrachloride, etc. 
This is also a well-known laboratory procedure which can be easily 
adapted to factory practice. Another method which commends 
itself to consideration is to bring the mother liquor in contact with 
an extractive, like carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, carbon disul- 
phide, or benzene which will form a two-liquid layer system ; acidify 
with sulphuric acid and add some oxidizing agent as chromic acid, 
a permanganate or ferric sulphate. On agitation the iodine is taken 
up by the extractive which can be used repeatedly with fresh por- 
tions of mother liquor, .thus concentrating the iodine from a number 
of melts. 

Still another method has been studied which may be practicable 
where cheap electric current is available. The kelp plant or the 
ash either, as may be desired, is placed between porous septa on 
either side of which is clear water. Electrodes are introduced into 
the water chambers and a current passed. A very low amperage 
and a moderate voltage only are required, so that the cost of current 
is not high. Potassium hydrate collects in the cathode solution from 
which it can be readily recovered as the carbonate or any other de- 
sired salt. Promptly, as the current starts to pass, iodine appears 
in the anode chamber and probably is very completely segregated 
there. A little later, however, free chlorine begins to come off from 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 47 

the anode compartment and the iodine is soon oxydized to iodic 
acid. The recovery of the iodine from the anode solution, as such 
or as potassium iodide, is a very simple matter. 

THE COST OF POTASH FERTILIZERS. 

The cost of imported Stassfurt salts is increasing. This fact 
alone would be a sufficient justification for the investigations here 
recorded. But to this fact must be added the far more important 
one that the economic and social rearrangements taking place in the 
country make imperative a determination of our native resources. 
So far the data gathered justify the conclusion that there are two 
possible sources of potash salts in the United States of present 
economic importance. These are the Pacific kelp groves and the 
alunite deposits of Utah, Nevada, and Colorado. That potash 
silicates, brine residues, or other sources may in time have a large 
commercial importance is possible, even though appearing improb- 
able at present. That some of them may have a local importance and 
be good financial investments in a minor way is quite probable. 

To estimate the cost of producing a ton of potassium chloride at 
one of the Pacific ports is yet not feasible. There is a small factory 
in operation for this purpose, with a reputed capacity of 6,000 tons 
annually. It is operating under a secret process, depending for suc- 
cess upon a secondary product, is making no serious effort to recover 
the iodine, and is largely in an experimental stage both as regards 
the harvesting of the kelp and its manipulation in the factory. The 
experience there obtained shows little as yet regarding the possible 
cost of producing potassium chloride. 

In so far as can be judged from a priori considerations, it should 
be possible to produce potassium chloride from kelp at practically 
no cost, since the iodine and other minor products should at least 
equal in value the cost of manipulation. There is no sound assur- 
ance, however, that this is the case. Carefully obtained engineer- 
ing observations and computations are yet needed. And existing 
trade relations — for instance, those affecting the iodine market — may 
require time-consuming and otherwise difficult readjustments or 
developments. Nevertheless, it can not be doubted that potassium 
chloride can be produced on the Pacific coast in quantity and sold 
at a price very low as compared with the current prices on the At- 
lantic coast. Probably, also, the product obtained from Pacific kelp 
could be placed on the Atlantic coast at a price substantially lower 
than is now current, and certainly this should be the case when the 
opening of the Panama Canal makes possible a water shipment prac- 
tically from factory door to Atlantic distributing points. Authori- 
tative statements of the cost of production of potash salts at the Stass- 
furt mines are not, naturally, easily accessible. Enough is known, 
however, to justify a decided opinion that greatly increased ton- 
nages at prices half or less than now prevailing could be laid down 
at American ports should there be any real threat of competition 
from native sources. 

In the case of alunite, quite different conditions prevail. It is 
very doubtful if the product mined from any known American 
sources would average 10 per cent potash. But assuming that it 
ran even somewhat higher, and 20 per cent potassium sulphate were 



48 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

obtained, then more than 5 tons of material must be mined and 
treated for every ton of salt produced. This means a large initial 
cost for mining and preparation of material. It also indicates that 
only a very large and a relatively rich deposit is worthy of any 
serious commercial attention. A limited market for alumina and the 
prospect of cheap sulphuric acid from smelter fumes negative the 
hopes of by-products alone paying the cost of manipulation. Never- 
theless, it seems quite probable that potassium sulphate from alunite 
might be produced in Utah, and possibly elsewhere, at a cost less than 
half the current price on the Atlantic seaboard plus transportation 
charges. Here, again, there are necessary further data from field 
and laboratory and engineering considerations for which the exist- 
ing data are entirely insufficient. 

In so far as present information goes, the Pacific kelp groves are 
and probably will remain by far the most important American source 
of potash. In fact, if carefully and skillfully husbanded, they prom- 
ise to approximate and perhaps even surpass, in importance and 
value the famous Stassf urt mines. Alunite, important as it is, falls 
far behind. Aside from all other potash salts, the present annual 
importation of potassium sulphate is upward of 50,000 tons. To 
equal this, at least 250,000 tons, and probably much more, alunite 
would have to be mined and treated each year. To take out of the 
ground this much material, aside from providing fuel, water, labor 
of manufacture, and other necessary items, is no mean problem. 
Increasing mining costs with increasing depth of shafts and drifts, 
or increasing mass of overburden seems to be inevitable. Possibly 
these difficulties can be met, but at the best alunite promises to be 
a minor if nevertheless important American source of potash. 

Finally, while the conclusion is justified that kelp , groves and 
alunite can be exploited commercially and even, perhaps, at large 
profits, it is by no means to be assumed that any particular proposition 
which may be promoted is safe and desirable. Prospective investors 
are again urgently warned to hesitate until they have obtained such 
information as may be given by public officials and the advice of a 
reliable and disinterested chemist or engineer who has carefully 
inspected the particular proposition in view. 

conclusions. 

To the foregoing report and as integral parts thereof are appended 
tables, special reports, reference lists, and maps containing more de- 
tailed data. From the data as a whole are deduced the following con- 
clusions : 

1. A much increased production and wider use of commercial fer- 
tilizers must accompany or closely follow the economic changes 
and readjustments now taking place in the United States. 

2. The United States has within its borders supplies of raw mate- 
rials for standard types of fertilizers. These supplies will be ample 
for a long but indefinite period. 

3. Official investigation, supervision, and control of natural sup- 
plies of raw materials are very desirable — to prevent undue wastage, 
to encourage legitimate manufacturing, and to conserve the interests 
of the lay public, especially of farmers and small investors. 



* 



Appendix A. 

A REPORT ON THE NATURAL PHOSPHATES OF TENNESSEE, 
KENTUCKY, AND ARKANSAS. 



Natural Phosphates of Tennessee. 
introduction. 

The phosphate deposits of Tennessee rank next in importance to 
those of Florida. Much work has been done in these fields and 
valuable geological and chemical reports have been published. 

It is the purpose of this report to describe conditions in these fields, 
to outline the modern methods of mining and handling the rock, and 
to show what disposal is being made of the finished product and 
waste material or by-products of the industry. 

The conditions in the Tennessee fields have changed considerably 
within the last few years, mining methods have improved, deposits 
of lower grade rock are being exploited, and many of the old mines 
and dumps are being reworked. 

GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY. 

Tennessee is well situated for the distribution of fertilizer material 
to the Southern and Middle Western States. Its phosphate deposits 
occur in what is known as the Central Basin of Tennessee (elevation 
600 feet) and in the valleys of the western part of the Highland Rim 
(elevation 1,000 feet) surrounding this basin. 

The Central Basin extends across the State from north to south, 
lying between the Cumberland Plateau on the east and the Tennessee 
River on the west. It covers an area of approximately 7,000 square 
miles of gently undulating country. The phosphate deposits have 
been developed only in the western part of this area, workable beds 
lying in parts of Sumner, Davidson, Williamson, Lewis, Maury, 
Hickman, and Giles Counties. (See fig. 1.) 

The main streams in the phosphate regions are the Cumberland, 
Duck, and Tennessee Rivers, but there are numerous creeks and 
tributaries of the Duck River that are of great importance in the 
development of the deposits, as sources of water supply for mining 
and handling the rock. 

Both the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers have been utilized for 
transporting phosphate rock, but mining in the vicinity of these 
streams has practically ceased and no recent shipments have been 
made. Considerable material will probably be shipped down the 
Tennessee River in the near future, following the development of the 
white phosphate deposits of Perry and Decatur Counties. 

20827°— S. Doc. 190, 62-2 4 49 




BROWN ROCK BLUE ROCK WHITE ROCK 



Fig. 1.— Approximate distribution of the Tennessee phosphates. 
20827°— S. Doc. IftO. 62-2. (To face page 49.) 



50 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Most of the mines are reached by the Louisville & Nashville, the 
Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis, and the Middle Tennessee 
Eailroad. 

GENERAL GEOLOGY. 

All the exposed strata of these regions are of sedimentary origin. 
The phosphate occurs in rocks of Ordovician and Devonian age. 
Table I, compiled from the report of Hayes and Ulrich 1 on the 
Columbia quadrangle, which covers parts of Williamson, Hickman, 
Lewis, and Maury Counties, gives the stratigraphic position of the 
various phosphate beds and their relation to the overlying, surround- 
ing, and underlying formations. 



Table I.- 


—Geologic formations 


in the Columbia, quadrangle, Tenn. 


Age. 


Formation. 


Description. 






Gray and blue cherty limestone. 

Very cherty shale. 

Carbonaceous black shale. (Phosphate horizon.) 














Soft green or brown shale with bands of crystalline 
limestone. 










(Phosphate.) 






blue"limestone. (Phosphate.) 




Hermitage formation 


(Phosphate.) 
Shale with siliceous limestone below and phosphate 

limestone above. (Phosphate.) 
Massive, compact, white or blue cherty limestone. 















1 Since the publication of the Columbia folio this formation has been correlated with the Fort Payne 
chert, the older name, and "Tullahoma" has been abandoned by the U S. Geological Survey. 

Table I shows four formations in the Ordovician rocks which con- 
tain phosphate beds. It must be understood, however, that these 
formations are not always in normal succession, some of them being 
absent in certain areas, nor are the beds always highly phosphatic. 
Local conditions during their deposition and subsequent changes 
have caused wide divergence in composition. 

CLASSES OF PHOSPHATE. 

There are three economical^ important classes of phosphate rock 
in Tennessee, namely, the brown phosphate or Ordovician rock, 
which is divided by Hayes and Ulrich into several groups ; the blue, 
or Devonian phosphate, of which there are several classes, and the 
white rock deposited from solution in caverns. The nodular and 
conglomerate phosphates, though widely distributed, are not found 
in sufficient quantities to be profitably mined by themselves. Each 
of the three classes mentioned will be treated separately. 

Brown-Rock Phosphate. 

location of deposits. 

Workable deposits of brown-rock phosphate are found scattered 
over a very wide area, as many different beds occur in the several 
formations of Ordovician age. The most important are those in 



l Columbia Folio, No. 95, U. S. Geological Survey, 1903. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 51 

Sumner, Davidson, Williamson, Hickman, Maury, Lewis, and Giles 
Counties. Most of the mines are reached by the Louisville & Nash- 
ville and the Nashville, Chattanooga & St. Louis Railroads, but 
several of the deposits being worked in Hickman and Davidson 
Counties are several miles from the railroads. The brown-rock de- 
posits west of Nashville, in Davidson County, and those of Sumner 
County, in the vicinity of Gallatin, have easy access to the Cumber- 
land River. 

GEOLOGICAL OCCTJBRENCE AND ORIGIN. 

All of the Tennessee brown-rock phosphate occurs in rocks of 
Ordovician age. There are numerous phosphatic horizons in this 
series, some of which frequently occur so close together that they 
can be mined as a single bed. Taken in order of their stratigraphic 
succession, the phosphate bearing rocks are given in Table II. 

Table IL — Geologic formations in west-central Tennessee, which carry brown- 
rock phosphate. 



Age. 


Formation. 


County where found. 














Ordovician 




Maury, Giles. 

Maury, Williamson, Davidson. 




[.Hermitage formation 



The deposits of brown phosphate are generally conceded to be 
formed by the leaching of phosphatic limestones by carbonated wa- 
ters. The solution and removal of carbonate of lime has been at- 
tended by a diminution in thickness and consequent settling of the 
phosphatic strata. Some secondary deposition has also taken place 
in the pores and interstices of the leached mother rock. 

The phosphate beds occur in two distinct forms, known as collar 
and blanket deposits. The first occurs where the horizontal phos- 
phatic limestone stratum outcrops on the slope of a steep hill. The 
stratum passes through the hill but has been leached only at the 
outcrop, the overburden of younger rocks protecting the main part 
of the bed from the action of percolating waters. This class of de- 
posit has proved very deceptive to the miner, who, finding the out- 
crop a very high grade phosphate rock, has tunneled into the hill 
to discover that the stratum passes rapidly to a phosphatic limestone. 

The blanket deposits, on the other hand, sometimes cover wide 
areas. They usually lie near the surface of gently undulating hills 
where the underdrainage is favorable to their formation. Almost 
ideal conditions existed in the Mount Pleasant regions for the pro- 
duction of such deposits. 

In this section the highly phosphatic Bigby limestone lies very 
near the surface and is underlain by an easily soluble fine-grained 
limestone through which the percolating water readily drained. The 
leaching began where the surface water gained access to the beds 
along the joint planes, but gradually worked through the entire 
mass, carrying away the carbonate of lime in solution and leaving 
the less soluble phosphate of lime. 

The blanket deposits are always more or less wavy in their char- 
acter, owing to the irregularity of the leaching. Large columns. 



52 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



bowlders, and cones of unaltered phosphatic limestone occur through- 
out these deposits. In Plate I, figures 1 and 2, are shown strata and 
bowlders of phosphatic limestone, with the leached brown phosphate 
occurring both above and below them. 

There is also a secondary tufaceous brown phosphate which occurs 
in the Hermitage formation, but it occurs in very small quantities, is 
essentially a pocket formation, and is of no great economic impor- 
tance. 

According to Hayes and Ulrich, 1 the limestone from which the 
brown phosphate is derived was probably deposited in a sea so 
shallow that the bottom was affected by wave action and currents. 
These authors consider the deposits to be largely, of organic origin and 
to consist of the remains of phosphatic and carbonaceous shellfish. 
The carbonate of lime was partly replaced by the phosphate, form- 
ing beds of more or less phosphatic limestone, which upon being ele- 
vated above the surface were further enriched as outlined above. 
Brown 2 and Kuhm s agree with Hayes and Ulrich in their theories 
as to the origin of the Ordovician phosphate. 



PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 



The Ordovician phosphate varies considerably according to loca- 
tion. The beds derived from the different formations have definite 
characteristics which aid the geologist and mining engineer in iden- 
tifying the horizon. The rock varies in color from a light gray to a 
deep chocolate brown and in texture from a porous rock, disintegrat- 
ing into phosphatic sand, to a hard, close-grained rock very resistant 
to weathering. As a whole the rock is brown or gray and occurs in 
plates of varying thickness. The beds vary in thickness from a few 
inches to 20 or 30 feet, with an average of 6 to 8 feet. The mean 
specific gravity of the Tennessee brown rock is about 2.8. The yield 
of phosphate per foot per acre is from 600 to 1,000 tons. 

In Table III are given the results of analyses of different types of 
brown-rock phosphate, the samples being taken in several localities: 



Table III. 



-Analyses of samples of Ordovician brown-rock phosphate from 
Tennessee. 



No. 


Location. 


Thick- 
ness of 
bed. 


Geologic formation. 


Ps0 6 . 


Ca s (PO<) s . 


3 and 5 

46 


Mount Pleasant, Maury County 

Near Nashville, Davidson County. . . 


Feet. 
3 
4 
3 

40 
6 
8 




Per cent. 
34.50 
34.32 
35. 79 
35.01 
23.62 
31.11 


Per cent. 

75.42 




75. 02 


70 




78.21 


76 


Near Centerville, Hickman County 

Near Gallatin, Sumner County 


do 


76.33 


39 


do 


51.62 


40 


Bigby (disintegrated). 


C7.98 









METHODS OF MINING. 

Only within the last few years have modern mining methods been 
employed in the Tennessee phosphate fields. For years the richest 
deposits of brown rock in the Mount Pleasant regions were worked 

1 Columbia Folio No. 95, U. S. Geological Survey, 1903. 

' Engineering Association of the South. Trans., 15, 93-94 (1903-4). 

8 Engineering and Mining Jour., 88, 522 (1907). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 53 

by hand, and only when these deposits were considered to be nearly 
exhausted did the operators seem to realize the crudity, wastefulness, 
and inefficiency of the methods they were using. Even now a few 
small firms and farmers are employing the pioneer method of shaking 
out all rock not held by the tines of a potato fork and drying the 
larger pieces in the sun or on ricks of wood. 

The larger operators have adopted much more thorough and 
economical methods of working the deposits. The overburden is 
first removed by steam shovels or scrapers, and the phosphate rock, 
together with its matrix, dug out with picks and forks, loaded into 
tramcars, and hauled to the washer, where it is put through a cleans- 
ing process described below. In the vicinity of Centerville they have 
installed the hydraulic system of mining which has been used so 
successfully in the Florida land pebble regions. By employing a 
screen to prevent large pieces of rock from entering the centrifugal 
pump this method is expected to prove very satisfactory. The 
Tennessee phosphate regions have distinct advantages over those of 
Florida for hydraulic mining, as the Tennessee product occurs in the 
hills, where the overburden can be disposed of by gravity. The rock 
itself does not have to be pumped to a great height, as is the case in 
many of the Florida mines, where the pits are so far below the level 
of the washer plant. Plate II, figure 1, shows the method of mining 
brown-rock phosphate. 

The modern Tennessee washing plants differ considerably in some 
features, but the general scheme of separating the phosphate from 
its impurities is the same with all of them. The phosphate rock, 
together with the matrix in which it is frequently embedded, is 
brought from the mines in tramcars, hauled to the top of the washer, 
and dumped into a hopper. Streams of water are played upon the 
mass, washing the material down to a crusher, which breaks up the 
larger lumps of rock. From this point it either goes through a log 
washer similar to that employed in the Florida phosphate fields. 1 
or is conveyed over a series of screens by a land of chain scraper. 

The material passing through these screens then goes to the revolv- 
ing rinser, where it is thoroughly sprayed. The portion passing 
through the half -inch perforations of the rinser falls into a hopper, 
is taken up by pumps and passed through a series of settling tanks, 
being finally discharged into the draining bins. After the water has 
partly drained off the washed product is drawn out and sent to the 
driers. Plate II, figure 2, shows one of the most modern types of 
phosphate washers. 

Where the log washer is employed, the backwash, together with 
the overflow from the settling tanks, is led through troughs fitted 
with riffles to catch the finely divided phosphate. The clay and 
other impurities held in suspension with very finely divided phos- 
phate is finally discharged into waste ponds. This method of wash- 
ing has proved so efficient that many of the old deposits are being 
reworked and a very high grade product obtained. 

In Table IV a comparison is made of the coarser rock which was 
saved by the old mining methods and the fine material formerly 
thrown out, but which modern washer plants have now made it 
profitable to mine. 

1 Waggaman, Bui. No. 76, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1910. 



54 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Table IV. — Analyses of coarse and fine, washed, Tennessee orown phosphate. 



Location. 



Coarse fragments. 



P2O5 



Ca 3 (P0 4 ). 



Rocfe fragments, less 
than one-half inch 
diameter. 



P20 8 



Ca s (P04) 2 



Charleston, S. C, Mining & Manufacturing Co., Mount 
Pleasant, Tenn 

Volunteer State Co., Centerville, Tenn 

International Agricultural- Corporation plant, Mount 
Pleasant, Tenn 



Per cent. 
33.50 
35.01 

36.91 



Per cent. 
73.23 
76.33 



Per cent. 
34.32 
33.23 

35.72 



Per cenw9 
75.01 
72.64 

78.05 



The old kiln method of drying phosphate on ricks of wood is still 
employed to some extent in the brown-rock region, but is used only 
for the larger plates or fragments of rock. A few small operators 
still dry their rock in the sun, but the output of material dried in 
this way is very small. 

Most of the rock is dried in rotary cylinders, which are so largely 
employed in the pebble regions of Florida. 1 Some of the miners 
prefer to feed their phosphate rock into the hottest end of the drier — 
that is, the end in which the flames and gases of combustion enter — 
while others introduce the phosphate into the, cooler end of the 
cylinder and allow it to work toward the hotter end. The latter 
method seems on the whole more efficient and economical, since the 
partly dried rock does not come in contact with atmosphere highly 
charged with moisture, and there is also probably less danger of loss 
of finely divided rock through the stack. Kentucky coal is used as 
fuel. 



COST OF PRODUCTION. 



The cost of preparing brown-rock phosphate for the market has 
increased considerably in recent years. When the rock was first 
mined no plant was required to treat the phosphate, hand labor was 
employed, and a few rough sheds were erected in which to store or 
dry the material. At that time thousands of tons were mined at a 
cost not exceeding 75 cents per ton. 

With the increased cost of labor and fuel and the expense of erect- 
ing washing and drying plants, the cost of production has advanced 
greatly. In the Mount Pleasant district, where the old deposits are 
being reworked, and in Giles County, where the phosphate is in a 
disintegrated condition, much waste material has to be handled to 
obtain a high-grade product. It is also necessary to remove a much 
heavier overburden than formerly to reach the phosphate deposits. 
Many of the operators find it profitable to remove 4 feet of over- 
burden for every foot of underlying phosphate. The average cost of 
taking off this overburden is 15 cents per cubic yard, though it is 
claimed that where hydraulic methods are employed it can be re- 
moved at a much lower figure. 

On account of these numerous factors the average cost of produc- 
ing high-grade rock for the fertilizer trade is not far from $2.50 
per ton. 



1 Waggaman, Bui. No. 76, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. ; Menninger, C G., Eng. 
News, 60, 1908. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



55 



MARKETING OUTPUT. 



The current freight rates from the principal mining districts in 
the brown-rock regions to the manufacturing cities and markets are 
given in Table V. 

Table V. — Freight rates on phosphate rock (Jump rock) per long ton. 



Location of deposit. 



Destination. 



Rate per 
ton. 



Mount Pleasant, Columbia, and vicinity; Wales and 
vicinity, Franklin, to 

Gallatin and vicinity to 

Centerville and vicinity to 



Cincinnati, Ohio . . 
Cleveland, Ohio... 
Columbus, Ohio... 

Louisville, Ky 

Indianapolis, Ind. 

Atlanta, Ga 

Montgomery, Ala. 

Savannah, Ga 

Cincinnati, Ohio . . 
Cleveland, Ohio... 
Columbus, Ohio... 

Louisville, Ky 

Indianapolis, Ind . 
/Cincinnati, Ohio . . 
(Nashville, Term... 



$2.50 
3.80 
3.40 
2.25 
3.10 
2.45 
1.75 
3.75 
2.25 
3.55 
3.15 
2.00 
2.85 
2.50 
1.7S 



» Ton of 2,000 pounds. 

Most of the brown-rock phosphate mined in Tennessee is disposed 
of in this country, though a considerable quantity of the highest 
grade — rock containing from 78 to 80 per cent Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 — is shipped 
abroad. 

The fertilizer trade (manufacturers of acid phosphate) demands a 
rock containing not less than 72 per cent bone phosphate of lime 
(Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 ) and not more than 5 per cent iron and alumina. This 
produces an acid phosphate containing 16 per cent available phos- 
phoric acid. 

Within the last few years the sales of ground-rock phosphate for 
direct application to the field have grown considerably. Excellent 
results have been reported from its use at the Ohio and Illinois 
experiment stations and from individual farmers. Several com- 
panies are handling this product exclusively. The rock is ground 
to varying degrees of fineness. One company has two grades ; No. 1 
is ground so that 90 per cent will pass a 60-mesh sieve and No. 2 
ground so that 95 per cent will pass a screen containing 100 meshes 
to the inch. The ground rock is sold on a guaranty of 60 to 65 per 
cent bone phosphate of lime (Ca 3 (POJ 2 ) and shipped chiefly to 
States in the Middle West. 

In Sumner and Hickman Counties new phosphate fertilizers are 
being prepared. The processes are patented and the manufacurers 
claim that they obtain a product containing fully as much phos- 
phoric acid as superphosphate, without the objectionable feature of 
free acid. Under these new processes rather low-grade rock can be 
used. 

WASTE MATERIAL. 

Within the last few years the main sources of waste in the brown- 
rock phosphate fields have been largely eliminated. When phosphate 
was first mined in the Mount Pleasant district probably half of the 
rock was thrown away. Much of this will never be recovered, as it 
has become mixed with foreign matter and covered by overburden 
too heavy to make reworking commercially practicable. A large 



56 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 



proportion of the Mount Pleasant deposits, however, is now being 
worked over. Modern washer plants save upward of 75 per cent 01 
the phosphatic material, recovering much of the finely divided or 
disintegrated rock. The operators state they can hold and cleanse 
material fine enough to pass a 60-mesh sieve. 

Considerable finely divided phosphate is discharged into the waste 
ponds. Samples of material taken where the wash water enters 
these ponds are found to be quite rich in phosphoric acid, but the 
quality of the deposited residue falls off as the middle and far end 
of the pond is reached, since the heavier particles, which are mainly 
phosphate rock, have settled out. Part of these waste ponds can 
and doubtless will be worked over to advantage. 

In putting the rock through the mechanical dryer considerable- 
phosphate dust is carried up the flue and out of the stack by the pow- 
erful draft. Many of the stacks are now provided with hoods and 
baffles to catch these " floats." Weather conditions affect the amount 
of material thus carried up the flues, but, roughly figured, about 2 
tons of " floats " are saved by these hoods for every 100 tons of rock 
charged to the dryers. 

The limestone " horses," or unbleached phosphatic limestones, 
occurring in most of the brown-rock phosphate beds frequently con- 
tain a high percentage of phosphoric acid. No attempt has been 
made as yet to utilize these bowlders, although they would be valu- 
able when ground, as they contain a considerable quantity of lime 
phosphate mixed with lime carbonate. Under the present method 
of mining the phosphate is dug from around these bowlders and the 
pits are then either abandoned or filled in with overburden from 
adjoining deposits. These bowlders could be removed, broken up, 
and crushed at small cost, and would prove of considerable value as 
fertilizer material. 

Another method of utilizing these phosphatic limestones would 
be to burn them in a kiln, afterwards slaking them with steam or 
hot water. There is frequently sufficient carbonate of lime present 
to make this a practical means of disintegrating the rock. 

In Table VI the phosphate content of a number of samples of 
phosphatic limestone before and after burning are given. These 
samples were first dried for several hours at 100° C. and then ana- 
lyzed. They were then heated to the highest temperature obtain- 
able with a blast lamp until they ceased to lose in weight, and again 
analyzed. 

Table VI. — Analyses of phosphatic limestone, underlying phosphate beds, and 
bowlders before and after burning. 



No. 



li w 

47 
65 
75 



Location. 



Mount Pleasant, Term., underlying limestone. 

do 

do 

do 

NearMount Pleasant, Maury County 

6 miles west of Nashville, Davidson County. . . 
2 miles north of Centerville, Hickman County. 
do 



Content of PjOf. 



Before 
burning. 



Per cent. 
16.05 
9.48 
19.43 
18.30 
12.53 
22.97 
14.69 
16.32 



After 
burning. 



Per cent. 
21.15 
11. 12 
21.42 
23.80 
21.15 
27.05 
19.75 
17.72 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



57 



In Table VII there are given the results of some experiments 
carried on in cooperation with L. E. Coates, of Baltimore, Md., the 
object of which was to test the slaking properties of phosphatic lime- 
stones after heating to various temperatures. 

The samples grouped opposite A were burned at the temperatures 
indicated in column 2 and sent to the laboratories of this bureau. 
Here they were then slaked and sifted, and the percentages of the 
several sized particles determined. Each was then analyzed for 
phosphoric acid. 

The samples under B were all burned and analyzed in the physical 
laboratory of the H. S. Spackman Engineering Co., Philadelphia, 
Pa. It is understood they were ground before being burned. This 
fact no doubt accounts for the small percentage of nodules in the 
samples. 

Table VII. — Mechanical and chemical analyses of phosphatic limestone after 

burning and slaking. 



1 

Sample 


2 

Tempera- 
ture. 


8 

Time of 
heating. 


4 

Loss on 

heating 
(percent). 


5 

Percentage of separates after heating and their 
phosphoric acid content. 


6 

CaCojln 
nodules 


No. 


Nod- 
ules. 


P : 5 


0.1-.25 
mm. 


Pj0 6 


0.1 
mm. 


PiO, 


(per 
cent). 


A. 
Cheok for 1 


er 






100 
55+ 
38+ 

100 
78+ 


22.80 
27.24 
29.04 
24.56 
25.88 

24.56 
18.00 
26.96 
25.20 
26.76 












1 


800-812 
909-914 


do 


15.30 
15.50 


26+ 
28+ 


27.96 
28.44 


18+ 
33+ 


24.00 
24.28 


7.45 


2 


5.65 


Check for 3. 




3 


700-705 




8.40 


13+ 


29.72 


9+ 


26.24 


26.86 


B. 

Check for 4, 
5, 6, and 7. 




4 


700 

800 

900 

1,000 


15 minutes.. 

do 

do 

do 


18.15 
18.23 
18.90 
18.95 


4+ 
1+ 
6+ 
3+ 


36+ 
28+ 
41+ 
43+ 


27.16 
29.16 
26.44 
28.60 


58+ 
69+ 
52+ 
53+ 


24.68 
24.28 
22.08 
22.16 




5 




6 




7... 









In every instance (except two, where the temperature was only 
700° C.) the percentage of phosphoric acid is lower in the finest of 
the three grades of separates. This is to be expected from the char- 
acter of the rock, since the free lime in slaking readily disintegrates. 
The figures in Table V, A, seem to indicate that slaking takes place 
much better when the phosphatic limestone has been heated to 900° 
C. or higher. 

Another source of waste is at the picking belt, where the clay balls, 
flint, and limestone are picked out by hand and thrown away. Un- 
fortunately, a poor class of labor is usually employed for this purpose, 
and much good phosphate is lost in the operation. 

In Table VIII are given the analyses of the various samples of 
phosphatic material, much of which is wasted in preparing the rock 
for the market. 



58 



FERTILIZES, RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Table VIII. — Analyses of material lost in the pioneer methods of mining 

brown-rock phosphate. 



No. 


Location. 


Description. 


SiOj 


Fe 2 O s 
AI2O3 


P20( 


Ca 3 
(PO<)a 


12 

99, 


Arrow mine, Charleston, S. C, 
Mining and Manufacturing Co., 
near Mount Pleasant, Tenn. 

Property of Interstate Agricul- 
tural Corporation at Mount 
Pleasant, Tenn. 

Property of Charleston, S. C, 
Mining and Manufacturing Co., 
near Mount Pleasant, Tenn. 

Arrow plant of Charleston, S. C, 
Mining and Manufacturing Co., 
near Mount Pleasant, Tenn. 

Blue Grass plant of Interstate 
Agricultural Corporation, 
Mount Pleasant, Tenn. 


Material discharged into waste 
pond; sample taken close to 
mouth of trough. 1 

Phorphate ; sand, and mud dis- 
charged into waste pond. 

Phosphate, sand, and muck, for- 
merly thrown away, now being 
worked over. 

Material thrown from picking 
board — day balls containing 
limestone,flint,and phosphate. 

Sample of floats saved by placing 
hood over stack — phosphate 
dust containing carbon. 


P.ct. 

5.77 


P.ct. 
4.19 


P.ct. 
34.32 

27.32 

28.22 

22.49 

30.51 


P.ct. 
75.01 

59.70 


20 
16 
?1 


16.65 
35.40 


6.48 
6.17 


61.66 

49.14 
66.67 











x This material will no doubt be worked over and much of the phosphate recovered. 



PRESENT CONDITION OF THE INDUSTRY. 



There are fully 30 companies which own brown-rock phosphate 
property in Tennessee, but during the early part of 1911 only 15 of 
these were actually engaged in mining operations. The combined 
capacity of the 15 operating plants was about 900,000 tons per annum, 
but few were running full time and many only intermittently. 

Brown-rock mining is being carried on at or near Mount Pleasant, 
Columbia, and Southport, in Maury County ; near Gallatin, in Sumner 
County ; at Wales Station, in Giles County ; near Centerville, in Hick- 
man County, and near Ewells Station, Williamson County. 

After several years of depression the brown-rock phosphate indus- 
try during 1910 showed considerable activity, resulting in a sub- 
stantial gain over 1909 in the material marketed. The control of 
the fields, however, is passing rapidly into the hands of the large 
fertilizer corporations. These companies have installed modern 
washer plants and are working deposits which the small operator 
was unable to handle with limited capital. Mining operations, how- 
ever, have not resumed their former activity. This is due both to 
the increased cost of labor and the greater expense of handling the 
remaining deposits of phosphate. The enormous development in 
the last few years of the Florida pebble phosphate is also accountable 
for the falling off in the production of Tennessee rock. 

The average price of brown-rock phosphate (72 per cent) f. o. b. 
mines is about $3.75 per ton. Apparently the price of this material 
has reached its level, and wide variations from the price given are 
not to be anticipated, barring some unusual and unexpected develop- 
ment in the industrial or labor worlds. 

Table IX is a summary taken from the report of F. B. Van Horn 1 
and shows the production of Tennessee phosphate during the last 
six years. 

1 Production of Phosphate in 1910, Mineral Resources, U. S. Geological Survey. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



59 



Table IX. — Production of phosphate rock of the several classes in Tennessee 
from 1905 to 1910, inclusive. 

[Long tons.] 



Year. 


Brown 
rock. 


Blue 
rock. 


White 
rock. 


Year. 


Brown 
rock. 


Blue 
rock. 


White 
rock. 


1905 


438, 139 
510, 705 
594,594 


44,031 
35,669 
38,993 


689 
1,303 
5,025 


1908 


374, 114 
266,298 
329,382 


79, 717 
66,705 
68,806 


1,600 


1906 


1909 


1907 


1910 











FUTURE OF THE INDUSTRY. 

A few years ago the life of the Mount Pleasant phosphate fields 
was considered limited to six or seven years at most. With the ad- 
vent of new machinery and modern mining methods many deposits 
which were regarded as exhausted promise to yield as much high- 
grade rock as has been removed in past years. Many of the rich 
deposits are still practically untouched, and it is safe to assume that 
the brown-rock fields will continue to produce a large tonnage for 
many years. 

Blue-Rock Phosphate, 
location of deposits. 

The important deposits of blue-rock, or Devonian, phosphate in 
Tennessee lie along Leatherwood Creek, in the western part of Maury 
County, south and east of Centerville, on both sides of Swan Creek, 
in Hickman County, and in the eastern part of Lewis County. 

The mines are reached by the Louisville & Nashville, the Nash- 
ville, Chattanooga & St. Louis, and the Middle Tennessee Railroads. 
The rock is usually dried and then shipped to various points in the 
South and Middle West. The Duck River is the only navigable 
stream convenient to the blue-rock fields. Practically no phosphate 
has been shipped on this river in recent years. 

GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE. 



The blue-rock phosphate belongs to the Devonian period and oc- 
curs in the geologic formation known as the Chattanooga shale. The 
beds vary in thickness up to 4 feet and differ widely in their content 
of phosphoric acid in different locations. 

The phosphate stratum is usually overlain by a massive blue-black 
shale or slate, 3 feet or more in thickness, containing at its base 
phosphatic nodules, and is underlain normally by Silurian limestone. 
Frequently an unconformity exists which brings the Devonian phos- 
phate directly over the brown Ordovician rock. Under these condi- 
tions mining should be carried on very profitably. 

The analyses of some typical sections of phosphate from areas 
where such conditions occur are given in Table X. 



60 



EEKTILIZEB RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Table X. — Analyses and descriptions of phosphate beds from localities where 
the blue rock directly overlies the brown phosphate of the Leipers forma- 
tion. 



No. 


Location. 


Thick- 
ness of 
strata. 


Description. 1 


Analysis. 


P20 5 


Ca 3 (PO<) 3 


68 


Blue Buck mines, 6 miles south- 
east of Centerville, Term. 
do 


Ft. in. 

9 

9 
2 6 

1 3 

8 
1 6 

1 8 

1 2 


Coarse, hard blue rock 


Per cent. 
24.80 

27.91 
35.79 

25.25 

32.95 
32.40 

26.44 

36.66 


Per cent. 
54.20 


69 


Fine-grained, hard blue rock 

Brown phosphate (Leipers for- 
mation). 


60 99 


70 


Ho 


78 21 


60 


Corn Belt Phosphate Co., 8 

miles east of Centerville. 
do 


55.18 


61 


Close-grained, hard blue rock 

Brown disintegrated phosphate 
(Leipers formation). 

Coarse oolitic, blue rock (sam- 
pled in tunnel). 

Fine-grained, hard blue rock 
(in tunnel). 

Brown phosphate (Leipers for- 
mation). 


72.01 


66 


do 


70.82 


71 

T?, 


Meridian Fertilizer Factory, 2 
miles south of Centerville. 

dO :. 


57.79 
80.11 


(11 


do 















1 No sample collected. 

According to Hayes and Ulrich 1 the blue-rock phosphate was laid 
down under conditions somewhat similar to those under which the 
Ordovician phosphate was deposited, except that the shellfish and 
organisms from which the deposits are in part derived were more 
highly phosphatic than those existing in Ordovician times, and con- 
sequently the deposits required no subsequent leaching to make them 
of economic value. Another important factor in the formation of the 
richer deposits of blue phosphate, according to these authorities, is 
the highly phosphatic Leipers limestone, which in places directly 
underlies the Devonian phosphate, and which through leaching and 
subsequent disintegration has given the blue rock much of its 
substance. 

The beds of the highest-grade phosphate, therefore, are of both 
primary and secondary origin, consisting of the rolled and leached 
fragments of Ordovician limestone and the phosphatic remains of 
Devonian life. 

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 



The physical properties of blue-rock phosphate differ according to 
the conditions of its deposition. The un weathered rock varies in 
color from a blue black to a light gray, depending on its content of 
organic matter, and in texture from a hard, close-grained, massive 
calcareous rock to coarsely oolitic, loosely cemented material, very 
readily broken up. In general the phosphate-bearing formation may 
be described as a bluish-gray rock, composed of flattened ovules and 
the waterworn casts of phosphatic shells. In the fresh state the rock 
is very hard and difficult to grind. It weathers upon exposure into 
a rusty-yellow material. The average specific gravity of the rock is 
about 2.87. This means that a stratum 1 foot thick will run about 
3,200 tons per acre. 

1 Loc. cit. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



61 



The blue rock, as a rule, has a lower content of phosphoric acid 
than the brown, but this objection is largely offset by the fact that 
it contains less iron and alumina than the brown rock. 

In Table XI the analyses of several types of blue-rock phosphate 
are given, with their more prominent physical characteristics. 



Table XI.- 



-Analyses of different types of Tennessee blue-rock phosphate from 
various localities. 



No. 


Location. 


Description. 


Analyses. 


P 2 6 


Ca,(PO<)j 


49 
54 


Leatherwood Creek, Maury County. . 

Blue Buck mines, 6 miles southeast 
of Centerville. 
...do 


Hard blue rock, partly weathered to 

rusty brown. 
Hard, close-grained blue rock 


Per cent. 
31.39 

32.21 

36.79 

31.66 

33.86 

25.25 

32.95 
26.44 

28.82 

36.66 

35.75 

27.58 

36.20 


Per cent. 
68.58 

70.39 


5fi 


Hard, close-grained blue rock (high 

grade). 
Coarse, gray oolitic rock, yet not as 

hard as No. 58. 
Kidney phosphate, occurring in slate 

above blue-rock phosphate. 
Coarse, oolitic gray rock, overlying 

blue rock. 

Hard blue rock, underlying No. 60 

Coarse, oolitic blue rock (unweath- 

ered). 
Coarse, oolitic, blue rock (weathered) 

overlying high-grade blue rock. 
Fine-grained, hard blue rock (sampled 

in tunnel). 
Fine-grained, hard blue rock (sam- 
pled outside tunnel). 
Kidney phosphate, embedded in slate 

roof. 
Fine-grained hard blue rock (high 

grade). 


80.41 


58 


do 


69.19 


59 


do 


73.99 


60 
61 


Corn Belt Phosphate Co., 8 miles 
east of Centerville. 
...do 


55.18 
72.01 


71 

7S 


Meridian Fertilizer Factory, 2 miles 
south of Centerville. 
..do 


57.79 
62.98 


7fl 


do 


80.11 


74 


do 


T8.12 


123 
1?4 


Mayfield mine, Gordonsburg, Lewis 

County. 
do 


60.27 
79.11 









METHODS OF MINING. 



The blue-rock phosphate is mined by first stripping around the 
face of the hill, then drifting in on the stratum as the overburden 
becomes too heavy to remove. The blue shale or slate directly over- 
lying the phosphate forms, as a rule, an excellent roof, requiring 
no great amount of timbering for its support. Owing to its hard- 
ness, the rock is loosened by blasting and then broken up with picks. 
Compressed-air drills are now largely used in mining. The material 
is loaded into tramcars and wheeled or drawn by mules to the drying 
and crushing plant, where it is prepared for shipment. No washing 
is necessary for the bedded blue-rock phosphate. In Plate IV, figure 
1, is shown the method of mining blue-rock phosphate. 

The rock is dried both in kilns and in mechanical dryers, such as 
described under brown-rock phosphate. As it comes from the mines 
the rock contains a rather low percentage of moisture, and some of 
the miners deem it unnecessary to dry it at all. Since it contains 
both carbonate of lime and organic matter, the burning or drying 
process serves to increase the percentage of phosphoric acid in the 
finished product. 



COST OE PRODUCTION. 



In comparing the cost of mining blue-rock phosphate with that of 
brown there are a number of factors to be considered. Tunneling 



62 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

is more expensive than mining by open cut, except where the over- 
burden is very heavy or composed of a hard rock like that usually 
overlying the Devonian phosphate. 

The blue rock must be blasted or drilled out, whereas the brown- 
rock phosphate can be removed with pick and shovel. The blue 
rock does not have to be washed and contains but little moisture, 
while much of the brown rock (as mined to-day) must be put through 
an elaborate cleansing process, during which considerable foreign 
material is handled for each ton of phosphate produced. In addi- 
tion, a large quantity of fuel must be consumed to remove the water. 
Formerly the cost of mining blue rock was greater than that of 
mining brown, but the expense at present is nearly the same, approx- 
imately $2.50 per ton. 

One point in favor of blue-rock mining is that work can go on in 
the tunnels during wet weather, while the brown-rock mines are 
forced to suspend work. 

DISPOSAL OF PRODUCT. 

Although some specimens of blue-rock phosphate will run as high 
as 78 to 80 per cent of bone phosphate of lime, which is the grade 
demanded for export, the average grade of the rock is not usually 
more than 70 to 72 per cent. Most of the blue-rock phosphate mined 
in Tennessee is consumed in this county in the 1 manufacture of acid 
phosphate. 

FREIGHT BATES. 

Since much of the blue rock is found in the same localities as the 
brown, the freight rates given on page 55 also apply to this product. 

EXTENT OF OPERATIONS. 

Extensive development work in the blue-rock region has been done 
along Swan Creek and its tributaries in Hickman County, along 
Leatherwood Creek in Maury County, and at Gordonsburg in Lewis 
County, but only at the latter place is much mining going on at 
present. 

According to Van Horn, 1 the total quantity of blue-rock phosphate 
produced from 1905 to 1910 is 333,921 tons. 2 The annual output is 
given in Table IX. 

PRESENT CONDITION OF THE INDUSTRY. 

Five companies are mining blue-rock phosphate at the present time, 
but only one of these has a large annual output. The production of 
this class of phosphate is falling off considerably. This is due to a 
number of causes: First, many of the deposits are of an uncertain 
character. Sometimes the phosphate stratum thins out to almost 
nothing when followed into the hills, while in other localities the 
beds may grow thicker but become so poor in phosphoric acid that 
the rock is of little commercial value. Second, the enormous devel- 
opment of the Florida pebble phosphate fields during the last few 
years has caused a decline through competition. Third, new meth- 

1 Production of Phosphate Rock in 1910. Mineral Resources, U. S. Geological Survey. 
* This includes a small tonnage from Arkansas. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 63 

ods of handling the disintegrated brown-rock phosphate, formerly 
considered waste, have caused a revival in these fields at the expense 
of the blue-rock industry. 

FUTURE OPERATIONS. 

With the exception of the high-grade blue-rock deposits and those 
beds which rest directly on the brown rock, so that both can be 
worked together, the blue phosphate will probably not be extensively 
mined for a number of years. The operators have so often been 
deceived in what promised to be extensive high-grade, blue-rock de- 
posits, but which subsequently "pinched out," that they prefer to 
await better prices before undertaking to mine strata of uncertain 
composition. Should the price of phosphate advance, it will doubt- 
less cause renewed activity in these fields. 

White-Rock Phosphate, 
location of deposits. 

The white phosphate rock of Tennessee so far exploited occurs in 
Perry and Decatur Counties. 

In the former county x the mines are located at Toms Creek, from 
5 to 6 miles east of the Tennessee River. In Decatur County 2 the 
phosphate has been developed along the tributaries of Beech River, 
between Parsons and Decaturville. The mines are from 6 to 8 miles 
west of the Tennessee River and from 3 to 4 miles from the Nashville, 
Chattanooga & St. Louis Railroad at Parsons, Tenn. There is a good 
wagon road between Parsons and Decaturville. 

Although the deposits of white phosphate occur mostly in pockets 
and can not be expected to have any great lateral extent, some of 
more or less importance have been reported at several widely sepa- 
rated localities in Perry and Decatur Counties. 

GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE AND ORIGIN. 

The white phosphates are all of secondary origin and belong to a 
much more recent geologic period than the Silurian and Devonian 
rocks with which they are associated. Hayes 3 divides them into 
three classes, namely, the stony, breccia, and lamellar phosphate. 
The first two classes, though widely disseminated, are in quantities 
too small and too thoroughly mixed with chert and foreign matter to 
be profitably mined. Fortunately, the lamellar phosphate is not 
only the richest, but the most plentiful of the three varieties. It is 
seldom found as an outcrop, but is encountered as the beds are fol- 
lowed into the hills. According to Hayes, it was deposited from 
solution in caverns in the upper Silurian limestone, the character of 
the rock indicating that the deposition frequently took place under 
hydrostatic pressure. As the limestones above these caverns were 
gradually dissolved by percolating and running water, the overlying 

i Hayes, Ann. Report, U. S. Geological Survey, Part III, 1899-1910. 

2B. Eckel, Bui. 213, U. S. Geological Survey, 418-419 (1903). 

* Mineral Resources, Part 4, 623-630, 1894-95; Ann. Report U. S. Geological Survey, 
1899-1900, Part III, 484-485 ; Ann. Report U. S. Geological Survey, 1895-96, Part II, 
236-250, 



64 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

strata settled down on the phosphate beds, causing a breaking up of 
the phosphate layers and more or less mixing with the chert frag- 
ments and residual clays from the overlying formations. 

The phosphate is usually overlain by 3 to 8 feet of blue or yellow 
clay carrying phosphate fragments, which in turn is overlain by sev- 
eral feet of red and yellow clay containing limestone bowlders and 
fragments of chert. 

PHYSICAL PKOPERTIES. 

Much of the white phosphate of Tennessee resembles the hard-rock 
phosphate of Florida. The breccia variety consists of chert frag- 
ments embedded in a matrix of high-grade phosphate, while the 
stony phosphate consists of siliceous skeletons formerly filled with 
carbonate of lime, but now containing phosphate. Both of these 
grades, unless they are separated from the associated chert, are too 
low in phosphoric acid to be of much importance. 

The lamellar variety is very high grade material. It occurs in 
plates of various thicknesses, which are frequently cemented together, 
forming large bowlders weighing many tons. These plates vary from 
white or cream colored to pink and deep red. Some of the layers are 
rather porous, but the rock as a whole is close grained, very hard, and 
frequently coated with a thin, lustrous layer of precipitated phos- 
phate. Picked samples of the lamellar phosphate will run as high as 
85 to 90 per cent bone phosphate of lime, and there is little difficulty 
in obtaining rock in carload lots which will grade from 72 to 78 per 
cent. 

A number of different types of white phosphate were collected 
when the author visited these fields early in 1911, but unfortunately 
through some mistake the various types were mixed and analyzed as 
one sample. Some of the samples contained large quantities of chert, 
so that the analysis of the whole, though given below (No. 82), is of 
little value. Some other phosphate analyses of the Tennessee white 
rock from Perry and Decatur Counties are given which show that 
much of this material is of excellent quality and well suited for the 
manufacture of superphosphate. 

METHODS OE MINING. 

The Tennessee white phosphate has been mined by both open cut 
and by tunneling. The former method has been employed wherever 
the character and depth of overburden permit, but the overload is 
frequently so heavy as to render its removal impracticable, and 
under such circumstances tunneling is resorted to. Owing to the 
loose character of the overlying clay, extensive timbering is required 
in the tunnels and much of the white phosphate embedded in the clay 
above can not be economically recovered. 

As the phosphate is extremely hard and often occurs in very large 
bowlders, it is usually loosened by blasting, broken up with picks, and 
then loaded into tramcars and sent to the plant to be crushed into 
pieces of uniform size. 

The objectionable features of tunnel mining and hardness of the 
rock are largely offset by the fact that it is unnecessary cither to wash 
or dry the white phosphate to obtain a product grading from 72 to 
75 per cent of bone phosphate of lime. The results of analyses are 
given in Table XII. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 65 

Table XII. — Analyses of samples of Tennessee white-rock phosphate. 





Location. 


Description. 


Analyst. 


Analysis. 


Wo. 


SiOi 


FezO, 
A1 2 0, 


P 2 6 


Ca 3 
(P0 4 ) a 


82 


Toms Creek, Perry County. 
do 


Phosphate and chert 

Phosphate from storage 

bins. 
High-grade lamellar 

phosphate. 
Cherty white phosphate. 


0. C. Stark.... 


Perot. 


Perct. 


Perct. 

26.77 
32.76 

34.49 

18.61 

37.89 
35.32 
33.88 


Perct. 

58 49 


85 


do.. 


6.55 

7.56 

47.09 


2.71 
3.48 
3.90 

1.38 

2.57 
2.90 


71.60 
75.36 
40.66 

82 74 


86 
87 


Beech River Phosphate 
Co., Decatur County. 

Bowlder washed out of 
limestone cavern on 
Beech River, Decatur 
County. 

Perrv County 


do 

do 




do 




do 




77 14 




Decatur County 


Average of three small 
shipments. 


do 




73 89 













COST OF PRODUCTION. 

On account of the uncertain character of these deposits and the 
varying factors influencing the class of mining employed, it is diffi- 
cult to estimate the average cost of preparing the white phosphate 
for market. Moreover, no mining has been done in these fields for 
several years, during which time both labor conditions and mining 
methods have changed. 

Brown 1 states that the average cost of production should be 
slightly below that of Florida hard-rock phosphate. Considering 
the various factors enumerated above, it is probable that the cost of 
preparing the white rock for the market is somewhat higher than 
that of the Tennessee blue rock. 



WASTE MATERIAL. 



The clay associated with and directly overlying the lamellar phos- 
phate frequently contains many small fragments of high-grade rock. 
In the tunnel method of mining this phosphate is lost. Even when 
mining with open cut much of this phosphatic material is wasted, 
since the plants are not equipped for separating the good rock from 
the clay matrix. 

The breccia and stony varieties of white phosphate have not here- 
tofore been considered worth mining. Their low content of phos- 
phoric acid is mainly due to the large quantity of silica or chert 
with which they are associated. 

Hayes 3 suggests that the breccia variety might be utilized by 
crushing and subsequently screening out the chert. It is possible 
that the stony variety could be handled in the same way. Another 
method of raising the grade of these two classes of white phosphate 
would be to grind the rock and then put it through a washing 
process similar to that employed in the brown-rock fields. It is very 
doubtful, however, if these varieties exist in sufficient quantities at 
any one place to justify the installation of expensive machinery. 

i Engineering Association of the South, Transactions, 15, 123 (1904). 
a Mineral Resources, 4, Part IV, 625-626 (1894-95). 

20827°— S. Doc. 190, 62-2 5 



66 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OE THE UNITED STATES. 

EXTENT OF OPERATIONS. 

Mining operations have been carried on in but two localities in 
the white-rock fields, namely, at the junction of Welsdorf Branch 
with Toms Creek, Perry County, about 5 miles east of the Tennessee 
River, and on Beech River, between Parsons and Decaturville, De- 
catur County, 6 to 8 miles west of the Tennessee River. The plants 
at these two places have not been operated for several years and will 
need considerable repairing before work can be renewed. 

The total quantity of white phosphate marketed, according to Van 
Horn, 1 is about 8,600 tons. The annual output from 1905 to 1909 
is given in Table IX. 

PRESENT CONDITION OF THE INDUSTRY. 

No work has been done in the white-rock fields since 1909. The 
uncertain character of the deposits, the expense of mining, and the 
inaccessibility of many of the deposits has discouraged both pros- 
pecting and development work. When the author visited these re- 
gions early in 1911 plans were under way to renew mining opera- 
tions. The property of the Perry Phosphate Co. has been taken 
over by a new concern, a right of way has been secured to the Ten- 
nessee River, and several acres along the river front leased with a 
view to shipping the rock down this stream to Paducah, Ky. 

Some New York capitalists are prospecting the property of the 
Beech River Phosphate Co. in Decatur County, and, if indications 
are favorable, expect to mine the phosphate on the west side of the 
Tennessee River. 

FUTURE OPERATIONS. 

Thorough prospecting is necessary to determine the value and 
extent of the white-rock phosphate deposits. Although several areas 
known to contain good rock are practically untouched, a systematic 
prospect of these will prove quite expensive. It is doubtful if the 
development of this class of rock will advance very rapidly as long 
as large, accessible, and more uniform beds of high-grade brown-rock 
and blue-rock phosphate remain available. 

Natural Phosphates or Kentucky. 

DESCRIPTION OF DEPOSITS. 

Within the last few years considerable interest has been manifested 
in the phosphate deposits of Kentucky, but conflicting rumors con- 
cerning the value of these fields have confused the prospective 
investor and discouraged mining development. Mention was first 
made of the phosphatic nature of certain strata in Kentucky by 
Robert Peter 2 in 1877. This author described a thin layer of highly 
phosphatic limestone occurring in the " Lower Silurian " (Ordovician) 
near Lexington. These layers were regarded as of too irregular dis- 
tribution among the poorer limestones to be of any great commercial 
value. 

1 Production of Phosphate Rock in 1909. Mineral Resources, U. S. Geological Survey. 
* Kentucky Geological Survey ; chemical analysis A, 1S77. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



67 



LOCATION OF DEPOSITS. 



No importance was attached to these fields until the summer of 
1905, when a negro formerly employed in the phosphate mines of 
Mount Pleasant, Tenn., discovered a deposit of similar nature while 
digging post holes on the farm of H. L. Martin, near Midway, Ky. 
He showed the material to Mr. Martin and Mr. A. W. Davis, both of 
whom were familiar with the Tennessee phosphate, and who recog- 
nized the value of the discovery. Since that time prospecting has 
been carried on intermittently at various points in Fayette, Wood- 
ford, Scott, and Jessamine Counties, but no satisfactory and unbiased 
report on these deposits have as yet been published. (See fig. 2.) 

Unfortunately, many of the prospect pits have been filled in and 
the natural exposures are few, although plans are under way for 
starting development work. 

The phosphate area so far examined lies in Woodford, Fayette, 
Scott, and Jessamine Counties, but the most thoroughly prospected 
properties lie in Woodford County, in the vicinity of the little town 
of Midway. Here a number of pits and prospect holes have been 
dug and deposits of considerable value discovered. The phosphate 
area is certainly of wider extent than is generally believed, and though 
the material obtained from some localities does not appear to be of 
much economic importance, more thorough examination will no 
doubt lead to the discovery of other valuable deposits. 

In Table XIII are given the analyses of samples of Kentucky phos- 
phate from various localities. It must be understood that these 
samples are selected and do not in any case represent the average of 
that locality. 

Table XIII. — Samples of high-grade Kentucky phosphate from various localities. 



No. 


Location. 


Description. 


Analysis. 


P 2 5 


Caa(PO<) 2 


110 


Farm of M. D. Steel, 2^ miles south of Mid- 
way, Ky. 

Cogar farm, § mile south of Midway, Ky . . . . 

Slack's farm? 3 miles northwest of Midway, 
Ky. 

Outside State Universe grounds, Lexing- 
ton, Ky. 

Smith's farm, 24 miles east of Georgetown, 
Ky. 

Cut, 6 miles south of Lexington, Jessamine 
County, Ky. 




Per cent. 
34.02 

33.75 
37.10 

26.13 

27.14 

34.10 


Per cent. 
74.35 


11? 




73.74 


115 
118 
125 
■PR 


Hard, brown, heavy plates 

Thin, brown, brittle plates 

Brown, medium hardness 


81.08 
57.10 
59.43 

74.52 









GEOLOGICAL OCCTJRKENCE. 



The Kentucky phosphate region forms part of the great Cincinnati 
anticline extending from Nashville, Tenn., in a northeasterly direc- 
tion through Lexington, Ky., almost to Cincinnati. South of this 
city it divides into two broad domes, one culminating near Nashville 
and the other in Jessamine County, Ky. This latter is known as 
the Jessamine Dome. 

Erosion has destroyed much of the domelike structure of this last 
section, and in- cutting through the younger formatiors has caused 
numerous exposures of the underlying strata. 



68 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 




£j LEXINGTON AND WINCHESTER LIMESTONES 



Fig. 2.— Map of the bluegrass region of Kentucky, showing distribution of the Lexington and Win- 
Chester limestones, between which the phosphate occurs, 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



69 



All the exposed rocks of these regions are of sedimentary origin. 
The arching of the strata probably took place very gradually and 
has altered the horizontal position of the rocks but little. The beds 
rarely dip more than a few feet to the mile. 

The phosphate occurs in the Ordovician (" Lower Silurian ") 
system, at the top of the geologic formation known as the Lexington 
limestone. 

Table XIV, taken from the report of Matson 1 on the "Water 
Resources of the Bluegrass Eegion, Kentucky," shows the overlying 
and underlying formations which are more or less related to the 
phosphate beds. 

Table XIV. — Section showing phosphatic and related formations. 



System. 


Formation. 


Description. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Silurian and lower 






Feet. 
60 


part of Devonian. 






60 




< Blue limestone and shales 


125 








80 




(Interbedded blue limestone and shales, thin and 
\ nodular; shales predominate. 
(Shaly sandstones in southern part of region; 
\ blue shales in northern part. 
Blue and gray limestone, with some blue shales.. 
Gray crystalline limestone, cherty (Flanagan 
chert member). 

[Phosphate Horizon.] 
Argillaceous limestone and shale and bedded 

blue limestone. 
Heavy, bedded, coarse-grained crystalline, 
cherty limestone, usually gray. 


230 






200+ 




Winchester limestone . . . 
Lexington limestone 

Highbridge limestone . . . 


60 
75 

194 




30 
90 




Dense fine-grained dove-colored or gray lime- 
stone. 
Dense, fine-grained, dark, heavy bedded lime- 
. stone. 
Limestone known only from well records 


20-60 
285 
100+ 




St. Peters sandstone, , 











The phosphate rock occurs in thin plates embedded in a matrix of 
clay, siliceous material, and disintegrated phosphate, the whole hav- 
ing a thickness varying from a few inches to 10 or 12 feet. In some 
of the deposits considerable chert occurs, which may render the 
mining and grading of the phosphate somewhat difficult. 



PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 



The phosphate rock itself varies somewhat in its physical prop- 
erties. In color it ranges from a light gray to a rich chocolate brown 
and in texture from a compact, close-grained plate rock to porous 
cellular fragments and disintegrated phosphate. 

Most of the rock is in thin, close-grained plates, brownish gray in 
color and fairly hard. The average apparent specific gravity is 
about 3. 

Samples of the various types were analyzed, and the results of these 
analyses are given in Table XV, where the composition is compared 
with the predominant physical properties. 

1 Water Supply Paper, No. 233, United States Geological Survey. 1909. 



70 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

Table XV. — Composition of the different varieties of Kentucky phosphate. 



No. 


Location. 


Description. 


SiOs 


Fe 2 3 Alj0 3 


P 2 O s 


Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 


200 K 

201 K 


Near Midway, Ky. 
do 


Light yellow, hrown, soft 

Brown, chocolate, close 

grained, thin bedded. 
Brown, chocolate, porous, 

hard. 


Per cent. 

24.29 

2.63 

4.88 


Per cent. 
17.18 
2.75 

3.67 


Per cent. 
21.34 
35.71 

34.00 


Per cent. 
46.71 
78.17 


202 K 


do 


74.43 



METHODS OF MINING. 



Owing to the presence of so much finely divided foreign material 
in the phosphate deposits, it will be necessary to wash the phosphate 
rock before it can be used for the manufacture of acid phosphate. 
Plants for washing out the foreign material and at the same time 
saving the finely divided phosphate rock have proved very success- 
ful in the Tennessee phosphate fields. The method of separation is 
based on the difference between the specific gravities of the phosphate 
and the siliceous and clay matrix. 

Where water is available both the overburden and phosphate might 
be successfully handled by the hydraulic method of mining. Since 
the deposits occur on the hills, the waste material could be disposed of 
by gravity. These methods entail considerable initial outlay, a fact 
that will probably militate against the small operator, as from an 
economic standpoint it is advisable that plants should be erected that 
will reduce the element of waste to a minimum. 

In Table XVI the phosphate content of samples of the Kentucky 
phosphate before and after washing are given. The washing process, 
however, was not very thorough, as will be seen from the analysis. 



Tabee XVI.- 



-Analysis of samples of Kentucky phosphate before and, after 
washing. 





Location. 


Depth. 


Amount 
recovered 

after 
washing. 


Analyses. 


Sample No. 


Before washing. 


After washing. 




Si0 2 


A1 2 3 
Fe 2 3 


P2O5 


Si0 2 


A1 2 3 
Fe 2 3 


PsO s 


99-109 


Shallow pit, filled, 
farm of M. D. Steel, 
2J miles from Mid- 


Ft. in. 

2 

2 4 

3i 

3 6 
6 10J 


P.ct. 

80.00 
69.60 

77.80 
73.80 
76.00 

66.70 
86.86 


P.ct. 


P.ct. 


P.ct. 

31.74 
23.90 

25.45 

22.82 
22.85 

19.83 
28.70 


P.ct. 


P.ct. 


P.ct. 
33.57 


100-101 


do 






9.48 

11.27 
17.05 
11.96 


5.46 

6.28 
7.89 
7.55 


31.05 


108-107 


Deep pit on farm of 
M. D. Steel 






29.42 


106-105 


do 

do 

Farm of J. Slack, 2 
miles northwest of 






26.89 


104-103-102 






29.23 


i 113-114 






26.16 


126-127 


From cut 6 miles 
south of Lexington, 
in Jessamine 
County, Ky 


8 3 






16.01 


12.84 


29.29 











1 Contained considerable ohert. 
MARKETING. 



As a distributing point for the Middle West, Kentucky is much 
better situated than Tennessee. During the year 1910 the sales of 
ground rock phosphate in those regions greatly increased, and though 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



71 



the average mine run of the Kentucky phosphate is probably not as 
high as that from the Tennessee brown-rock area, the difference in 
freight rates will compensate in many instances for the difference in 
the grade of the product. 

Table XVII gives the freight rates from Midway, Ky., to towns in 
the Middle West as compared with those from the phosphate regions 
of Tennessee. 

Tabe XVII. — Freight rates from mines in Kentucky and- Tennessee to impor- 
tant near-by markets. 



Destination. 



Location of mines. 



Freight 
rates. 



Cincinnati, Ohio 
Louisville, Ky.. 
Cleveland, Ohio. 



fMidway, Ky SI. 57 

I Mount Pleasant, Tenn 

| Wales Station, Tenn !■ 2. 50 

[Nashville, Tenn 

I Midway. Ky 
Mount Pleasant, Tenn 
Wales Station, Tenn !■ 2. 00 
Nashville, Tenn 

(•Midway, Ky 3. 72 

I Mount Pleasant, Tenn 

1 Wales Station, Tenn \ 3. 80 

[Nashville, Tenn 



PRESENT CONDITION OF THE INDUSTRY. 

Up to the spring of 1911 work on the Kentucky phosphate area had 
been confined to prospecting. A small plant is now in course of con- 
struction which will start operations this year, and will probably 
accelerate greatly the development of the area. 

The owners of phosphate lands are holding their property at high 
figures. This is partly due to the fact that shortly after the rock was 
discovered large sums were paid for options on several farms in the 
vicinity of Midway. These options were renewed upon payment of 
other large sums, but were finally allowed to lapse, owing to lack of 
capital to develop the properties. The farmers therefore have a 
somewhat exaggerated idea of the value of their farms. 

Eecently there were 2,400 acres under option or leased by compa- 
nies and individuals interested in the phosphate industry. The land 
under lease is to be mined on the royalty basis, 25 cents to 50 cents 
being paid on every ton of rock produced, with a guaranty of a cer- 
tain tonnage each year. 

OUTLOOK. 

It is only a question of time before the Kentucky phosphate fields 
will be developed. The value of the deposits has not as yet been suffi- 
ciently well established to encourage the outlay of much capital, but 
the erection of the plant cited above will draw attention to this area, 
and it seems probable that its favorable location and the character 
of the output will put mining operations in the area on a sound 
footing. 

NATURAL PHOSPHATES OF ARKANSAS. 

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF DEPOSITS. 

The phosphate deposits of Arkansas are not generally regarded as 
of great economic importance. Compared with the product of the 
Tennessee and Florida fields the rock is rather low grade. The de- 
posits are well situated to supply the growing demand for fertilizers 
west of the Mississippi Kiver, and, though much of the material is too 



72 



EEETTLIZEE EESOUECES OF THE UNITED STATES. 




FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



73 



low in phosphoric acid and too high in iron to make it desirable for 
the manufacture of superphosphate, the increasing consumption of 
ground rock phosphate for agricultural purposes will no doubt 
hasten further development in these fields. 

The phosphate rock was not recognized as such until 1895, and it 
was not until 1896 that Branner x published a report on these deposits. 
In 1902 Branner and Newson 2 made a fuller geological report on 
these fields, embodying a large amount of analytical data and including 
a discusison of the transportation facilities and market for the product. 

Purdue 3 published a short paper on the Arkansas phosphates in 
1902, shortly after the plant of the Arkansas Fertilizer Co. was 
burned, but since that time, so far as can be learned, no publication 
of any note has been issued. 



LOCATION OF DEPOSITS. 



The portion of the phosphate fields now being worked lies in the 
northwestern part of Independence County, along Lafferty Creek, 
north and east of the White River. The deposits, however, extend 
over a considerable area in north-central Arkansas, and the phos- 
phate horizon has been recognized in Stone, Izard, Searcy, Marion, 
Baxter, and Newton Counties. (See fig. 3.) 

Mention has also been made of the occurrence of phosphate nodules 
in Clark County at a different geological horizon, but the pebbles have 
never been found in sufficient quantities to prove of economic interest. 

Some of the samples from other sources have analyzed very much 
higher than those from the deposits along Lafferty Creek, but trans- 
portation facilities are poor or, upon further investigation, the mate- 
rial has been found to be limited in quantity. This is the objection 
to the deposits found in Hickory Valley, where samples have been 
collected which ran over 73 per cent of Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 . 

The analyses given in Table XVIII, taken from the report of 
Branner and Newson, 4 give some idea of the character and richness 
of the phosphate rock from other localities. 

Table XVIII. — Analyses of Arkansas phosphates. 



Location. 


Thickness and charac- 
ter of beds. 


Analyses. 


Ca 3 (PO<)2 


Fe 2 3 Al:i03 


Milligan place, 12 miles northeast of Batesville (T. 14 N., 
R. 5 W., sec. 6). 
Do 




Per cent. 
47.19 

73.76 
57.03 
64.17 
67.79 
73.20 
62.03 
49.38 

58.31 

68.72 

66.39 
76.62 
69.31 
56.58 


Per cent. 


Washed pebbles 

Not determined 

...do 


3.82 


Do 


5.89 


Do 


3.08 


Do 




8.01 


Do 




5.19 


Do 


Not determined 


2.97 


Meeker place, J mile west of Cushman (T. 14 N., R. 7 


8.82 


W., sec. 8). 
Meeker place, i mile west of Cushman (T. 14 N., R. 8 

W., sec. 12). " 
Meeker place, J mile west of Cushman (T. 14 N., R. 8 

W., sec. 14). 
Tate's field (T. 14 N., R. 8 W., sec. 4) .. 


2feet 


5.85 




8.31 


1 foot 


4.13 


Reeling's place (T. 16 N., R. 16 W., sec. 18) 


4 feet (reported) 

Nodules (black) 

Nodules (brown) 


7.21 




8.10 


Do 


9.01 







Umer. Inst. Min. Eng., 26, 1896. 

2 Bui. No. 74, Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1902. 

»Bul. 315, U. S. Geological Survey, 463-473 (1907). 

* Bui. No. 74, Ark. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1902. 



74 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE. 

The exposed rocks in Northern Arkansas are all of sedimentary 
origin, the strata lying almost horizontally. The commercially im- 
portant deposits of phosphate were formerly considered of Devonian 
age, 1 but more recent investigations have shown that they are older, 
but that they are not younger than the Silurian period. 2 The Cason 
shale, in which they occur, is of Ordovician age. The following 
summary, taken from the report of Purdue, shows a general section, 
with the formations more or less related to the phosphate beds : 

Carboniferous Boone chert, including St. Joe marble. 

Devonian Chattanooga shale and Sylamore sandstone. 

Silurian St. Clair limestone. 

I Cason shale (phosphate horizon). 
Polk Bayou limestone. 
Izard limestone. 

As will be seen from inspection of the above table, the phosphate 
occurs between two limestone formations, both of which are charac- 
teristic and hence form "excellent guides to the phosphate horizon. 
The overlying or St. Clair limestone in the vicinity of the developed 
phosphate deposits varies from 6 to 10 feet in thickness. It is a me- 
dium-grained, crystalline limestone, pinkish white in color, contain- 
ing characteristic fossils, which stand out prominently on weathered 
surfaces. 

The Polk Bayou limestone, the underlying formation, varies con- 
siderably in thickness, ranging from 75 to 130 feet. It occurs in 
massive beds and varies in color from light gray to chocolate brown. 
Its texture is very coarse, the rock being made up of fossil fragments 
cemented together with crystals of calcite. This limestone rests 
directly upon the Izard limestone, which consists of a very close- 
grained limestone, almost fine enough to be used as lithographing 
stones. In some localities the Izard attains a considerable thickness. 

The rocks of the phosphate horizon vary considerably in character, 
but there are always bands of shale occurring among the phosphate 
strata. Manganese ore is also closely associated with the phosphate 
in many places, much of the rock being stained by this substance, 
The finding of manganese ore has often led to the location of the 
phosphate. 

Branner 3 states that the Arkansas phosphate is derived from the 
droppings and remains of fish and other marine agencies laid down 
gradually in deep water. Clark 4 is of the opinion that these deposits 
were formed in a similar manner to those of Tennessee, i. e., laid 
down in a shallow sea as phosphatic limestones and subsequently 
enriched by mechanical and chemical processes. Purdue 5 concludes, 
from the conglomerate character of the rock, that the deposition of 
the phosphate beds took place in shallow water, having closely fol- 
lowed the shore line as it advanced inland. The presence of large 
quantities of organic fragments indicate, in the opinion of this au- 
thority, that the deposits are the result of wave action. 

1 Branner, Amer. Inst, of Min. Eng., 26, 1S96 ; Branner and Newson, Bui. 74, Ark. 
Agr. Expt. Sta., 1903. 

sPurdne, Bui. 315, U. S. Geai^ieal Survey, 463-173 (1907). 

s Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 26, 1896. 

* Data of Geochemistry. 

»Bul. 310, U. S. Geological Survey, 471-472 (1907). 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



75 



Taking into consideration the close-grained character of the phos- 
phate rock, it is unlikely that there has been any enrichment brought 
about by the leaching out of carbonate of lime subsequent to the final 
deposition of the phosphate strata. 

The following sections (Table XIX), sampled at two different 
localities, show the nature and phosphoric-acid content of the various 
phosphate strata: 

Table XIX. — Analyses and description of phosphate strata from different 

localities. 



Location. 



Thickness of 
strata. 



Description. 



Analysis. 



P 2 5 



Ca 3 - 
(P0 4 )i 



95 



"Phosphate," 12 miles 
northwest of Bates- 
ville. 

....do 

....do 

....do 

lj miles north of Phos- 
phate. 

....do 

....do 

....do 



Feet. 



2.5 



.5 
4.0 
2.0 
1.5 

.5 
3.0 
1.0 

Undetermined. 



Ferruginous limestone (roof). 



Green shale (weathers to powder) . . 

Hard, gray, nodular 

Hard, gray, less nodular 

Ferruginous phosphate 



Thin-bedded shale (not sampled) 

Hard, gray oolitic phosphate 

Hard, gray oolitic phosphate, low 

grade. 
Ferruginous shale 



Per cent. 
Trace. 



5.82 
28.85 
14.10 
19.60 



Per cent. 
Trace. 



12.72 
63.05 
30.94 
42.94 



22.96 
10.01 



50.18 
21.87 



PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. 



The phosphate in the developed area occurs in two strata, one 
directly overlying the other. The first or upper layer is from 3^ to 
6 feet in thickness and consists of a hard, massive rock made up of 
rounded fragments of organic debris closely cemented together. Its 
specific gravity is about 3. It varies in color from light gray to 
brownish black, the color depending largely on the content of iron 
and manganese. This is the bed considered worth mining. 

Directly under this bed lies another stratum of phosphate rock 
from 2 to 4 feet in thickness and closely resembling that just de- 
scribed. It is, however, less oolitic and contains appreciably less 
phosphoric acid. This stratum is discarded in mining. 

Table XX gives the analyses of typical samples of Arkansas phos- 
phate, together with the more prominent physical characteristics of 
the rock. 

Table XX. — Analyses of typical samples of Arkansas phosphate. 





Location. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Description. 


Analysis. 


No. 


Si0 2 


Fe 2 Oa- 
A1»0 3 


P2O5 


96 


1| miles north of Phosphate. . 
do 


Feet. 
3 
1 

6 

2 




Per cent. 
39.94 
58.25 

24.31 

24.94 


Per cent. 
7.00 
2.43 

9.33 

7.43 


Per cent. 
22.96 


95 


Hard, brownish black, low 

grade. 
Hard, grayish brown, oolitic, 

high grade. 
Hard, gray, low grade 


10.01 


92 
91 


" Phosphate." Arkansas Fer- 
tilizer Co., east side of creek. 

" Phosphate." West side of 
creek, Arkansas Fertilizer 
Co. 


24.80 
14.16 



76 PEKTILIZEE RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

METHODS OF MINING. 

The Arkansas phosphate is mined in the same way as the blue- 
rock phosphate of Tennessee, by first stripping around the face of 
the hill till the overburden becomes too heavy to be profitably re- 
moved. Drifts are then run into the hillside and the rock blasted 
out. From the tunnel mouth it is loaded for shipment or piled upon, 
ricks of wood and burned, the latter process being favored at the 
mines, as fuel is abundant and burning reduces freight charges by 
expelling most of the moisture from the rock. 

It is claimed by the fertilizer manufacturer that burning the rock 
also facilitates crushing, since the ovules, which are usually the rich- 
est part of the phosphate rock, are rendered brittle and can be more 
finely ground for the subsequent acid treatment. 

COST OF MINING. 

The actual cost of mining varies considerably, depending on the 
accessibility and character of the deposit which is being worked. 
On the property of the Arkansas Fertilizer Co. most of the phos- 
phate occurs some distance above the level of Lafferty Creek, but dips 
below this stream as one follows the stratum south. The extraction 
of material in the latter case will no doubt prove quite expensive. 

Owing to the resistance of phosphate to weathering influences, the 
rock frequently forms a kind of bench around the hills, the overbur- 
den being largely removed by erosion for some distance back from 
the phosphate outcrop. Mining under these conditions can be carried 
on for some time by simply scraping off the light overburden or 
detritus and blasting or cutting out the rock thus exposed. This 
class of mining should be carried on at a cost not exceeding 75 cents 
per ton. 

As the overburden gets heavier it becomes necessary to run drifts 
into the hillside and mine the material very much like a seam of 
coal. This latter method is more expensive than the open-cut system, 
since much waste material has to be hauled out of the tunnels and con- 
siderable timber used in supporting the roof. As the tunneling pro- 
ceeds farther into the hills less timbering is usually required, as the 
St. Clair limestone and unweathered slate overlying the phosphate 
form a fairly substantial roof. The average cost per ton is rather 
hard to strike, but, all things considered, it is probably less than 
$2.25. 

MAEKETING. 

All the material mined on Lafferty Creek is at present shipped to 
Little Rock, Ark., and either made into acid phosphate or sold 
directly to farmers as ground rock phosphate. The acid phosphate 
contains about 14 per cent of phosphoric acid. 

The freight rate on phosphate rock from Batesville to Little Rock, 
Ark., is $1 per ton. 

OPEBATING CONDITIONS. 

The phosphate stratum directly underlying the main bed is either 
left untouched or taken out and discarded in mining operations. It 
varies from 1 to 4 feet in thickness and contains an average of 30 to 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 77 

40 per cent of tricalcium phosphate, Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 . At present it would 
not be practicable to ship this material, since the freight rate is too 
high and the material of too low grade for the direct manufacture of 
acid phosphate. 

Ground rock phosphate has not been used to any extent west of 
the Mississippi River, the present demand being for 62 per cent rock. 
This lower-grade phosphate would prove of value when ground, but 
the application would have to be heavy, and unless the market was 
within easy reach of the mines it would not be possible to dispose of 
the material at a profit. If the present tunnels are not allowed to 
collapse it will be possible to return and mine the low-grade rock 
when the market and improved methods of handling it shall make it 
profitable. 

Only one company has mined Arkansas phosphate to any extent. 
In sec. 14, T. 14, R. 8 W, 12 miles northwest of Batesville, near the 
junction of East and West Lafi'erty Creeks, the phosphate has been 
opened up by nine tunnels run into the hill on the west side of the creek. 
Numerous rooms branch out from these main tunnels, and fully 
50,000 tons of rock have been taken out. The stratum of high-grade 
phosphate here has an average thickness of 3-i to 4 feet. 

As the phosphate is traced southward on the west side of the creek 
the beds dip rather sharply, and when the mines were visited in 
May, 1911, a shaft was being sunk below the level of the creek in 
order to locate the deposit. 

On the east side of the creek the beds are nearly horizontal and 
considerably thicker, a 6-foot stratum being in evidence for one-half 
mile along the hillside. An analysis of an average sample of this 
stratum given in Table XX. 



There is every probability that the mining operations in the 
Arkansas phosphate fields will be extended. A fertilizer company of 
Little Rock, Ark., is preparing to enlarge an already extensive plant 
and is contemplating the erection of a sulphuric-acid factory. A 
number of other companies and individuals have large interests in 
these fields, and although some of them were bought primarily to 
develop the manganese deposits, they will no doubt handle the phos- 
phate rock as the demand for this material increases. The fact that 
manganese and phosphate are so closely associated in these regions is 
sufficient guaranty that the deposits will be extensively worked at 
some future date. 

W. H. Waggaman. 



Appendix B. 
REFERENCE LIST FOR PHOSPHATES. 



AFRICA. 



Abadie, M. Nouveaux gisements de phosphates dans le Sud de Tunis sur la ligne 

Sfax-Gafsa. L'Engrais, 19, 280 (1905). 
Aguillon, L. Les phosphates d'Algerie. Rapport de la Commission Interministrielle 

chargees d'etudier le regime de l'exploitation des phosphates de chaux en Algerie. 

L'Engrais, 10, 1023 (1890). 
Anonymous. Mining in Tunis. Eng. & Min. Jour., 83, 368 (1907). 

Phosphate rock in Algeria. Eng. & Mining Jour., 81, 918 (1906). 

Phosphatlag in Algerien und Tunis. Ber. iiber Handel u. Industrie (Ber- 
lin), 3, 19 (1902). 

Les phosphates et les pyrites de fer dans L'arrondissement de Bougie. L'En- 



grais, 16, 737 (1901). 

L' Exploitation des nouveaux gisements de phosphate de Tunisie. Les phos- 



phates de Thala, serontils diriges sur Tunis ou sur Sousse. L'Engrais, 16, 427 (1901). 

La fabrication du superphosphate en Algerie. L'Engrais, 16, 112 (1901). 

Phosphat Industrie in Algier. Zts. Prakt. Geol., 8, 362 (1900). 

- Le phosphate d'Algerie. Prix d'extraction. L'Engrais, 13, 589 (1898). 

Decret relatif a la recherche et a l'exploitation du phosphate de chaux en 



Algerie. L'Engrais, 13, 324 (1898). 

Les phosphates de Gafsa, et les lignes de chemins de fer. L'Engrais, 10, 

492 (1895). 

Phos. limestones in Algeria. Report of British consul, 1892-93. Deutsches 



Handels Archivs, 1894, p. 329. Zts. Prakt. Geol., 479 (1894). 

Importations de guano par le port de Malaga dans le quatrieme semestre 1900. 



L'Engrais, 16, 381 (1901). 

Les phosphates de Tamerza (Tunisie). L'Engrais, 18, 616 (1903). 



Aubin, Emile. Sur la determination de l'assimilabilite des scories de dephospho- 
ration. Composition des phosphates d'Algerie. L'Engrais, 11, 736 (1896). 

Azof, Ben. M. Paul Leroy-Beaulieu et les phosphates de Tebessa. L'Engrais, 11, 
59 (1896). 

Les phosphates d'Algerie. L'Engrais, 11, 83 (1896). 

Bellot, E. Les nouvelles exploitations de phosphate en Tunisie. Kalaat-es-Senam 

et Kalaa-Djerda. L'Engrais, 21, 1027 (1906). 
Blayac, M. Description geologique de la region des phosphates du Dyr et du Kouif 

pres Tebessa. Annales des Mines, 9e ser.,"<S, 319 (1894). 

Note sur les lambeaux suessoniens a phosphate de chaux de Bordj Kedir 

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FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 81 



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Observations concernant le gisement de la craie phosphatee. Soc. G6ol. du 

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Le Lutetien superieur aux environs de Pargnan (Aisne). Soc. Geol. du 

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Sur les phosphates noirs des Pyrenees. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 127, 834 



(1899) 

Maizieres. Apercus sur le developpment de l'industrie de superphosphate en France. 
L'Engrais, 20, 951 (1905). 

Nos resources en engrais phosphates. L'Engrais, 13, 204 (1898) . 

Les rayous de production du superphosphate. L'Engrais, 10, 923; 947; 971; 

995, 1020 (1895). 

Merle, Antoine. Les gites mineraux et metalliferes, et les eaux minerales du departe- 

ment du Doubs. Besancon, 1905. 
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Pellissier, J. Ported agricole de la recente d^couverte des phosphates noire de la 

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Peron, Alphonse. Les gisements de phosphate de chaux du department de L 'Yonnq 

C. R. Cong*. Soc. Sav. (Paris), 118 (1903). 



90 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OE THE UNITED STATES. 

Paturel. La valeur agricole des craies phosphatees. L'Engrais, 11, 663 (1896). 
Rabelle, Alphonse. Emploi agricole des minerals phosphates loeaux (Nord). Soc. 

Geol. du Nord Annales, SO, 187 (1901). 
Emploi agricole locale des craies phosphatees du pays Ribemontais. 

L'Engrais, 18, 283 (1903). 
— : Observations g^ologiques aux environs de Ribemont et dans la craie 

phosphatee d'Etaves et de Fresnoy. Soc. G6ol. du Nord Annales, SI, 45 (1902). 
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Boll., 22, 48 (1903). 
Tietze, O. Der Abbau der Phosphate in Nord-Frankreich. Gluckauf, May 25, 1907, 

4; Eng. & Min. Jour. (1907). 

Phosphatlagerstatten Frankreichs. Ztscr. Prakt. Geol. 15, 117 (1907). 

GERMANY. 

Anonymous. Phosphorite Bergbaus in Nassau in 1894 (2,340 tons). L'Engrais, 10, 
1022 (1895). 

De la presence des phosphorites dans le Luxembourg. L'Engrais, 14, 928 

(1899). 

Credner, H. Die phosphoritknollen des Leipziger Mittel-Oligocans und die Nord- 
deutschen phosphoritzonen. K. Sachs Ges Wiss. Abhandl. Math.-Phys. Classe, 
24, (1895). 

Deecke, W. Die mesozo'ische Formation der Provinz Pommern. Greifswald (1894). 

Delkeskamp, R. Die technisch nutzbaren Mineralien und Gesteine des Yannus 
und seiner nachsten Umgebung. Ztschr. Prakt. Geol., 11, 265 (1903). 

Delmar, T. Phosphorit Lager von Steinbach und allgemeine Gesichtspunkten 
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Geinitz, E. Unterster Lias in Mecklenberg. Zts. d. Deu Geol. Ges, 46, 290 (1894). 

Geinitz, G. Beitrage zur Geologie Mecklenburgs, 15, 290 (1894). 

Hoyer, M. Ueber das Vorkommen von Phosphorit und grunsandgeschichten in 
West Preussen. Zts. d. Deu Geol. Ges, 32, 698 (1880). 

Jentsch, A. Fiihrer durch den geologischen Sammlungen des Provinzialmuseums. 
Konigsberg (1892). 

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Maizieres. Superphosphates et scories de dephosphoration. Le prix du superphos- 
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Muller, Chr. Phosphorit-Bergbau in Nassau, 1894. Zts. Prakt. Geol., 3, 205 
(1895). 

Scholze. Ueber Thomas-Ammoniak-Phosphatkalk. Deutsch Zuckerindustrie, Ber- 
lin, 31, 849 (1906). 

Skinner, Robert P. Phosphate imports of Germany. Jour. Ind. & Eng. Chem., 1, 
323 (1909). 

von Solm, C. Ueber einige neue Mineralvorkommen aus Mahren. Verh. K. K. Geol. 
Reichsanst. (Wien), 49, 335 (1900). 

von Strombeck, A . Ueber den oberen Gault mit Belemnites minimus bei Gilesmarode 
unweit Braunschweig. Zts. Deu. Geol. Ges., 42, 557 (1890). 

Van Werveke, L. Die Phosphoritzone an der Grenze von Lias (a) und (B) in der 
Umgebung von Delme in Lothringen. Elsass-Lothr. Comm. Geol. Mittheil., 5, 
345 (1903). 

Vater, H. Das Alter der Phosphoritlager der Helmstedter Mulde. Zts. Deu. Geol. 
Ges., 69, 628 (1897). 

ITALY. 

Cooke, J. H. The phosphate beds of the Maltese Islands and their possibilities. The 
Mediterranean Naturalist (Malta), vol. II, no. 14. Eng. and Min. Jour., 54, 200 
(1892). 

Maizieres. Le superphosphate en Italie. L'Engrais, 16, 614 (1901). 

Le developpement de la production du superphosphate en Italie. L'Engrais, 

20, 206 (1905). 

Ragusa, E. Retrovamento di fosforiti a Modica. L'Engrais, 16, 881 (1901). 



Anonymous. D6couverte d'un gisement de phosphorites en Russie (Minsk). 

L'Engrais, 19, 928 (1904). 
Suppression du droit de sortie sur les phosphates en Russie. L'Engrais, 17, 

787 (1902). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OE THE UNITED STATES. 91 

Anonymous. L' Industrie du superphosphate en Pol ogne. L'Engrais, IS, 662(1888). 
On phosphorites from the Cretaceous beds on the banks of the Desna River, 

near the St. Dubrovka, Rigo-Orlovsk R. R. (In Russian.) Verhandl. K. Min. 

Ges. St. Petersburg, 35, 54 (1896). 

On a projected examination of the phosphorite deposits in the lands about the 



villages of Vottscha and Korgorodsk, along the Syssal and Visenga Rivers, in the 
Ust-Ssyssolisk District. Government Register (Russian), no. 187 (1897). 

'Soil Fertilizer Materials." (In Russian.) General statistics of transporta- 



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"Fertilizers" (in Russian). General statistics of transportation on the rail- 



roads of Russia, 75, 160 (1896). 

Mineral production in Poland for 1894. Poland Govern. News, 41 (1895). 

On deposits of phosphorites in the Government of Saratovf. Vestnik 

Russkaya Seliskava Chosyaistva, 45, 694 (1895). 
Anzimirovf, V. Ground meal prepared from the glauconitic phosphorites of 

Riasan. (In Russian.) Gazette of the Government of Riasan, 21 (1890). 
Phosphorite mining. (In Russian.) "Khozanie," 44, 867 (1895). 

Phosphorite deposits of the Government of Riasan. (In Russian.) 

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Selisk. choz. i, lesovodstvo, St. Petersburg, 103 (1902). 

Thru South Russia No. 2. Short description of the phosphorite mines of 

the town of Glebovf, Uschetzk district. (In Russian.) St. Petersburg (1896). 

Bogosslovski, N. A. Recherches geblogiques dans les districts de Nigrie-Lomov 
et de Narovtschat du Gouvernement de Panza. Bull. Com. Geol., St. Petersburg, 
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Bogdanovf, S. On the value of the Russian phosphorites. (In Russian.) Rur. 
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Relation of phosphorite to the two soil phosphate varieties. Khozanie, St. 

Petersburg, 38, 1391 (1897). 

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On the phosphorite deposits in the Br-yansk district. Vestnik Russk. 

Sslesk Koz, 7, 127 (1896). 

Origin of phosphorite. Review of the scientific-economic literature. (In 



Russian.) "Khozanie," St. Petersburg, 50, 1841 (1897). 

Gedroitz, A. Geol. researches in the Governments of Vilna, Grodno, Minsk, Vol- 
hynia, and in the northern part of Poland. (In Russian.) Mater, for the Geol. 
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Glasenapp, M. Les Phosphates de Russie. L'Engrais, 21, 1096 (1906). _ 

Iganovitsch, F. Phosphoric acid in phosphorites of Russia. (In Russian.) Agron- 
omy (Kievf.), Nos. 25-26 (1894). 

Jonovf, B. Phosphorites and their utilization as fertilizers in the Government of 
Saratov. (In Russian.) Trans, of the Zemstvo of Saratov, 12, 535 (1894). 

Karnoytsky. Ueber den Apatit vom Berger Blagodat im Ural. Zts. f. Kryst. und 
Miner., 16, 515 (1896). 

Klien, G. Ueber die phosphoriten Lagerungun an den Ufern des Dniester in Russisch 
Podolien und in Bukovina. Physik-OEkonom Ges. zu Konigsberg, Schriften, 26, 
26 (1895). 

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Mater, for the study of Russian soils (Russian), 7, 1 (1892). 

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Krotovf, P. On the mode of occurrence of the phosphorites of the Ssarapul district 
(Viatka). Viatski Krai, 17 (1895). 

On workable deposits of phosphorite in the Ssarapul district of the gouverne- 
ment of Viatka. (In Russian.) Bull. Comite. Geol., St. Petersburg, U, 57 (1896). 



92 FEETILIZEB RESOURCES OE THE UNITED STATES. 

Krotovf, P. On the discovery by Prof. Minch of natural cement and phosphorites 
with a phosphoric acid content of 30 per cent. Government Register (Russian), 219 
(1896). 

Koulomzine process phosphorite meal. (In Russian). St. Petersburg 

(1896). 

Note on a geological investigation of the Gayinsk and Anninsk regions of the 

Tscherdyn District. " Sbornik" Agric. of Perm., 1, pt. 3, 30 (1898). 

Krusch, P. Die nutzbaren Lagerstatten Russlands. Graz-er Montan. Zeitung 
Nos. 3 and 4 (1898). 

Kudravtzevf. The phosphorites of the district of Ustsyssolsk, government of 
Vologda. Bull. Minister of Agric. (Russian); 37, 640 (1897). 

Kulibuin, S. Census of statistical data on the mining industry of Russia, 1887. 
St. Petersburg (1890). 

Kulomzinn. Pulverized phosphorites as fertilizers; results of experiments. (In 
Russian.) St. Ptrsbg (1896). 

Lasskarevf, V. Geological observations along the Novosselitz branch of the South- 
western Railway in south Russia. (In Russian.) Mem. Soc. of Naturalists of New 
Russia (Russian), 21, 1 (1896). 

Levenson-Lessing, F. Notes on the soils of the steppes of the Kirguiz. Trans. Soc. 
Free Economy, 2 , 173 (1890). 

On the tschernozeme with phosphorite (natural soils with phosphorite). 

Trans. Soc. Pol. Econom., 4, 49 (1891). 

Lohest, M. Nodules de phosphate de chaux de Bielaia (Donetz). Soc. Geol. Belgiq. 

Annales, 26, 141 (1899). 
Loranski, A. Collection of statistical data on the ore and mineral production in 

Russia. St. Petersburg (1896), (1898), (1899), (1900). 
Makerovf, Ian A. On the results of the chemical analyses of the phosphorite black 

earth from the hills of Guberlinsk. Trans. Imp. Econ. Soc. St. Petrsbg., 6, 184 

(1895). 
Mketkin, S. Geologic map of Russia. Folio 57, Moscow. Mem. Com. Geol. No. 1, 

5, 282 (1890). 
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Com. Geol., St. Ptrbg., No. 3, 18, 107 (1899). 
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estimating the amount of phosphoric acid they contain by their color. St. Ptrbg. 

(1894). 
Pedaschenko, A. Fertilizers. (Productive Industries of Russia.) (In Russian.) 

St. Petersburg (1896). 
Portangalovf, A. A fortunate discovery [limonite and phosporite in Schatzk, gov- 
ernment of Tambovf.] (In Russian.) Tambovf Gazette, 64 (1895). 
Renevier, E. Phosphorites de Bessarabie. Arch.sci. phys. et. nat., 23, 345 (1890.) 
Sachs, A. Ueber Anapait, eine neues Kalkeisenphosphat von Anapa am Schwarzen 

Meere. Akad Wiss. Berlin. Sitzb. 18 (1901); Zeit. ang. chem. 15, 111, (1902). 
Sengbusch, A. von. Exploitation of the deposits of mineral fertilizer in Russia. 

(In Russian.) Izvest. Min. Semi, i Gotsud. Imuschtsch, 33, 539 (1896). 
The mining and treatment of the phosphorites. (In Russian.) Khozanie, 

51, 904 (1896). 

On the exploitation of the phosphorite deposits in the Usstss yssolyssk dis- 



trict of the government of Vologda (Russian). Bull. Com. Geol., 15, 12 (1896) 

Sidorenko, M. Petrographic analysis of the phosphorites of Koursk. (In Russian.) 
Mem. Nat. Soc. New Russia, 19, 1 (1894). 

Sibirtzer, N. M. Geologic atlas of Russia. Folio. No. 72, Vladimir, Nijni-Novgorod, 
Mouroin, Oka-Kliasma basin. (In Russian.) Mem. Com. Geol., No. 2, 15, 1 
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Snitzovf, I. On the Phosphorite deposits in the government of Saratovf (Russian). 
Monitor of Russ. Agron., 45 (1895). 

Tschervinski, Peter. Ueber die Phosphorite aus dem Bezirke der Stadt Rylsk, Gov- 
ernment Koursk. Annuaire Geol. et Mineral. Russie, 8 (1906). 

Tschervinski, Vladimir. Ueber Podalit, ein neues Mineral. Centralbl. fur Geol. 
Mineral., etc., — , 279 (1907). 

Vernadski, V. Ueber die Phosphorite des Gouvernement Smolenski. Rev. Ztschr. 
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Vinagradovf, V. Phosphorites and how to recognize them. (In Russian.) "Kho- 
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Vukalov, S. Phosphoric manures. (In Russian.) St. Ptrbg., Dictionnaire encyclo- 
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FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 93 

Yanovsky, A. P. Work of the commission of the section on artificial fertilizers at the 
Agronomy Exposition at Moscow. (In Russian.) Moscow (1895). 

An excursion to the phosphorite mills, Smolensk. (In Russian.) Agron. Soc. 

Moscow, Jour, of Agron. (Russian), 21 (1896). 

Yivanovf, A. P. Mineralogical excursion about Moscow. (In Russian.) Essmess- 
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SCANDINAVIA. 

Broms, G. E. Precede 1 pour preparer de l'apatite soluble "Extra phosphate." 
L'Engrais, 11, 807 (1896). 

Kolderup, C. F. Fosforsyregehalten i Ekersunds-Soggendalsfeltets Bergarter og 
dens Forhold til Benskjorheden hos kvaeget. Bergens Mus. Aarbog, 9, 1 (1898). 

Nelson, L. F. Das. Wiborgh-Phosphat, ein neuen Dungemittel. Chemiker Ztg. 
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SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 

Ahlburg, J. Die Nutzbaren Mineralien Spaniens und Portugals. Zts. Prakt. Geol., 

15, 183 (1907)^ 
Anonymous. Production des phosphates en Espagne, 1898. (4,500 tons; value, 

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nat., 19, 107 (1890). 
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Krift, L. Die phosporit fuhrung des vogtlandischen Obersilur und die Verbreitung 
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SWEDEN. 

Anderssen, J. G. Uber cambrische und silurische phosphorit fuhrende gesteine aus 

Schweden. Bui. Geol. Inst. Upsala 2 (1896). 
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MISCELLANEOUS — APPLICATION OP PHOSPHATE TO AGRICULTURE. 

Anonymous. Ground Phosphorite Meal as Fertilizer for Fields and Meadows (in 
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Bachmann, H. Die Wirkung der Phosphorsaure neben Kalk. Fuhling's land- 
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Weitere Ergebnisse von Diingungsversuchen mit Agrikultur-phosphat. 

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Baillarge, E. Les fumiers phospho-potassiques pour les luzernes. L'Engrais, 18, 
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94 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Balicka-Ivanovska, Gabryela. Przyczynek de poznania fizyologicznej roli kwasu 
fosforowego, W. Zywieniu see roslin. Bull. Intern. Acad., Krakow (1906). 

Bartz, E. Zur Herstellung eines an Phosphorsaure reichen Diingemittels aus phos- 
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Beskow, K. J. Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and superphosphate Industries. Extract 
from the account of a journey in Germany, 1900 (in Swedish). Texn. Tidskr. 
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Bjorn- Andersen, H. On the loss of nitrogen in liquid cow manure during the spread- 
ing, and on a. possible prevention of this loss by an admixture of superphosphate 
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Bottcher, O. Kunstliche Dungemittel in Chemisch teehnische Untersuchungs- 
methoden hrsggbn von Georg. Lunge, Berlin. (1905.) 380. 

Brooks, W. P. Agriculture: Vol. II, Manures, fertilizers, and farm crops, etc 
Springfield, Mass., 541 (1901). Guanos, phosphates, superphosphates, and Slags 259. 

Bruttoni, A. Influence de la finesse du phosphate dans la fabrication du superphos- 
phate. L'Engrais 18, 689 (1903). 

C. Le guano dissous pour la culture des pommes des terre. L'Engrais 19, 1907( 1904). 

C. Emploi du superphosphate au couverture a l'automne. L'Engrais 18, 1022 (1903). 

Casteb, J. B. La valeur des superphosphates et leur achat. L'Engrais 21, 1048 (1906). 

Caufment. Les effets d'une fumure judicieuse avec nitrate de soude et engrais 
phosphates. L'Engrais 19, 688 (1904). 

Cooke, D. S. Phosphate mining in Tennessee. Amer Fertil. 5 (1905). 

Deherain, P. P. Les Engrais. Les Ferments de la Terre. Paris, 220 (1895). 

G., C. Sels potassiques et superphosphates sur prairies et tourbeuses. L'Engrais, 19, 
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Garala, 0. V. "Cereales." Paris, (1905) (two chapters on manuring for cereals). 

Gerlach, M. Wir kann sich der Sandwirt am besten fiber das Dfingebedtirfniss 
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Grandeau, L. M. La fumure des champs et des jardins; instruction pratique sur 
l'emploi des engrais commerciaux— nitrates, phosphates, sels potassiques, etc., 
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■ Experiences faites au Pare des Princes en 1893 et 1894. Agric. de la Region 

du Nord, Oct. 20, (1894). 

Graver, Karl. Agrikultur-chemie. Leipzig, (1907). 

Grimm. Vergleichende Versuche fiber die Dfingerwirkung neuer Phosphate. 
Chemisch. Industrie, Berlin, 24, 213 (1901). 

Guthke. Dfingungsversuche mit Gafsaphosphat auf Wiesen, 1901-1902. Hannover'- 
sche Land.- u. Forstwissensch. Ztg., 4 (1903). 

Guthrie F. B., and Helms, R. Manure experiments with wheat. Agr. Gazette, Syd- 
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Guthrie, F. B., and Norris, G. W. Note on the effect of manuring upon the milling 
quality of the grain. Agr. Gazette, Sydney, N. S. W., 13, 727 (1902). 

Hamisch, F. Dfingungversuche mit Gerste und Weizen. Zts. landw. Versuchs- 
Wesen in Oesterreich, 12, 1398 (1902). 

Hoagland, I. G. The modern fertilizer industry, inclusive of sulphuric acid manu- 
facturing. Intended for students of modern fire insurance practice. N. Y. (1906). 

Hopkins, C. G. Comparative value of steamed bone meal and finely ground natural 
phosphate rock (Clover). U.S. Dept. Agr., Bureau Chemistry; Bull. 99, HOvll. 
(1906.) 

Hubert, P. Les phosphates de chaux naturels. Recherche de gisements; essais 
chimiques; extraction; emploi dans l'industrie; phosphates industriels; super- 
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Jaehne, O. Ueber Herstellung superphosphathaltiger Dungemittel aus eisenreichen 
Phosphaten. Zts. f. Angew. Chem., 5, 231 (1892). 

■ Zur Darstellung eines pyrophosphathaltigen Diingemittels (Patent Ger- 
many, 1891, no. 57,290.) Zts. f. Angew. Chem, 4, 263 (1891). 

Joffre, Jules. Nouvelles recherches sur la valeur agricoles du phosphate retrogrades. 
L'Engrais, 11, 136 (1896). 

Koch, M. A., and Krober, Ed. Einfluss der Bodenbakterien verschiedenen Phos- 
phaten. L'Engrais, 21, 349 (1906). 

Lechartier, G. Des terres arables des cantons de Redon au point de vue de l'acide 
phosphorique. C. R. Acad. Sci., Paris, ISO, 1225 (1900). 

Maizieres. Fabrications de l'acide phosphorique, du superphosphate double, des 
phosphates alcalins. L'Engrais, 21, 1047 (1906). 

Le sulphate d'ammoniaque favoiise l'assimilation de l'acide phosphorique 

par les plantes. L'Engrais, 20, 496 (1906). 

Experiences de fertilisation avec guano dissous. L'Engrais, 20, 1118 (1905). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 95 

Maizieres. La production des cereales dans sea rapports avec la consommation des 

engrais phosphates. L'Engrais, 20, 926 (1905). 
Le sulphate de potasse et le superphosphate dans la culture de la vi°ne 

L'Engrais, 19, 1097 (1904). 

Une action fertilisante peu connue du superphosphates. Mobilisation de 



la potasse du sol. L'Engrais, 19, 879 (1904) 

A propos de l'emploi direct du phosphate mineral. L'Engrais, 19, 567 (1904) 

Le fumure des bl6s en couverture. Emploi des engrais phospho-azotes 



L'Engrais, 19, 208 (1904). 

- Les phosphates remplacant le superphosphate. L'Engrais, 18, 878, 926 (1903). 
L'emploi des engrais chimiques au printemps sur les cereales. L'Engrais, 19, 



281 (1904). 

Le nitrate de soude et le superphosphate pour la culture de l'avoine. 



L'Engrais, 18, 185 (1903). 

Le createur de l'industrie du superphosphate (Sir John B. Lawes). L'OEuvre 



de Rothamsted. Un demi-siecle de culture continue en employant uniquement 
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De l'influence de l'azote, de la potasse, et de 1'acide phosphorique sur les 



bette>ave. L'Engrais, 18, 161 (1903) 

Les superphosphates et les empoisonnements par l'arsenic. L'Engrais, 16 



182 (1901). 

Apercus sur la fabrication du superphosphate (d'apres M. Elschner) 

L'Engrais, 16, 278 (1901). 

• Les phosphates d'alumine en Italic L'Engrais, 15, 1168 (1900). 

La production des scories Thomas et du superphosphate. Les scories arti- 



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96 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Tacke, B. Versuche uber die Wirkung verscheidener Rohphosphate auf Hoch- 

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NORTH AMERICA. 

CANADA AND MEXICO. 

Ami, Henry M. On the occurrence of " phosphatic nodules " in the Chazy formation 

about Ottawa, Canada. Ottawa Naturalist, 2, Ab (1888). 
Anonymous. Phosphate developments in Burgess Township, eastern Ontario. Eng. 

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Nouveau gisement de guano (Mulege, Lower California). L'Engrais, 11, 976 

(1896). 

A propos de la concession des gisements de guano du Mexique. L'Engrais, 

18, 1145 (1903). 

Production of phosphate in Canada in 1898. L'Engrais, 14, 325 (1899). 

Des phosphates du Canada. L'Engrais, 10, 976 (1895). 



Burckhardt, C. Sob re las rocas fosforiticas de las Sierras de Mazapil y Concepci6n 

del Oro. Parerg. Inst. Geol. Mexico, 2, 63 (1908). 
Ells, R. W. Bulletin on Apatite. Canada Geol. Survey, 32 (1904). 
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McNairn, W. H. Origin of Canadian Apatite. Trans. Can. Inst. 8, 495 (1910). 
McLeish, J. The mineral production of Canada in 1908. Mining World, SO, 539 

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Matthews, W. D. On the phosphatic nodules of the Cambrian of New Brunswick. 

Trans. New York Acad. Sci. 12, 108 (1893). 
Maizieres. L'Agriculture et les phosphates du Canada. L'Engrais, 15, 1000 (1900). 
Small, H. B. The phosphate mines of Canada. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans., 

21, 774; 1003 (1893). 
Stewart, John. Laurentian low-grade phosphate ore. Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. 

Eng. 21, 176 (1893). 
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OCEANICA. 

AUSTRALASIA. 

Andrew, A. R. The Clarendon phosphate deposit, near Dunedin, New Ze aland 

Trans. Australas. Inst. Min. Eng. 11, 178 (1906). 
The Clarendon rock phosphate near Nulton, Otago. New Zealand Mines 

Record (1906); Eng. & Min. Jour. (1906). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 97 

Andrew, A. R. On the geology of the Clarendon phosphate deposits (New Zealand) 

Trans. New Zealand Inst. 38, 447 (1906). 
Anonymous. L'industrie des phosphates en Nouvelle-Zelande. L'Enorais 21 

91(1906). 5 ' ' 

Cavernas du guano dans les lies Palau. L'Engrais, 17, 688 (1902). 

D6couverte de gisements des phosphates en Australie. (York Peninsula ) 

L'Engrais, 16, 881 (1901). 

Primes off ertes par legouvernementd'Australie occidentale pour la decouverte 

de gisements de phosphates. L'Engrais, 16, 737 (1901). 

D6couvertes des Phosphates dans l'Archipel Malais. L'Engrais, 16, 259 



(1901). 

Guano des lies du Pacific (Clipperton Is.). L'Engrais, 14, 44 (1899). 



Brown, H. Y. L. Notes on the rock phosphate deposits of S. Australia. Report 

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Report of the Government geologist on the phosphate discovery, Hundred of 

Clinton, Yorkes Peninsula. Adelaide (1903). 2 pp. 

Report of the Government geologist on the phosphate discovery, Hundred 



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Green & McKay, A. The discovery of phosphate rock in Otago. New Zealand 

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Howitt, A. M. Report on the phosphate of alumina beds (Wavellite) near Mansfield, 

Victoria. Victoria Dep't Mines & Water Supply. Ann. Rep. 1904, 117 (1905). 

Reports on the phosphate of alumina beds near Mansfield, County of Delatite. 

Victoria Geol. Survey. Records, 1, 245 (1906). 

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1'influence de produits d'origine physiologique (St. Thomas Isl., Gulf of Guinea). 

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On the occurrence of phosphatic deposits in the Jenolan Caves, New South 

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Power, F. D. Phosphate deposits of Ocean and Pleasant Islands (S. Pacific). Trans. 

Australas. Inst. Min. Eng., 10, 213 (1905). 
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CHRISTMAS ISLAND AND OCEAN ISLAND. 

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Anonymous. "The Phosphates of Christmas Island" (1900), Straits Budget, 

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(1901). 

Phosphate Industry of Christmas Island, Indian Ocean. British Government 

Gazette (1900). 

Liste des expeditions de phosphate de File Christmas (Jan., 1900-Mar., 1901). 

L'Engrais, 16, 427 (1901). 

20S27 — S. Doc. 190, 62-2 7 



98 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

Anonymous. The Phosphate Industry of Christmas Island in 1900. Board of Trade 
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Les phosphates L'lle Ocean. L'Engrais, 17, 140 (1902). 

Entre Japonais et Americains. TJn Conflit a propos de guano de l'lle Markus. 

L'Engrais, 17, 785 (1902). 

Premiere importation de phosphate "Ocean." L'Engrais, 19, 1097 (1904). 

Christmas Island phosphate rock and superphosphate works on Hikoshima 



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Maceo, A. Die nutzbaren Bodenchatze der deutschen Schutzgebiete. Zts. Prakt 

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Power, F. Danvers. L'lle Ocean et ses Phosphates. L'Engrais, 18, 542 (1903). 
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Steuart. Report on Christmas Island for 1904. Singapore (1905). 



Albert, H. & E. Dfingeruntersuchung. Zts. f. angew. Chemie, 4, 278 (1891). 
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Les scories de dephosphoration. L'Engrais, 18, 1215 (1903). 

Arnold, Carl, and Wedemeyer, Konrad. Zur Phosphorsaurebestimmungen nach 

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Bestimmung der Gesammtphosphorsaure in den Thomasschlacken. Chemi- 
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Audouard, A. Douze annees d'essais de scories. L'Engrais, 16, 447 (1901). 
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tlber die Wirksamkeit der Phosphorsaure in Wolters-phosphat. Sachsische 

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Zur Bestimmung der zitronensaureloslichen Phosphorsaure in Thomasmehl. 



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Untersuchungen fiber die Wirksamkeit der Phosphorsaure in verschiedenen 



Phosphaten. Illustr. landwirtsch. Ztg., 23, 31, 1063 (1903). 

C. A. Consommation des scories de dephosporation dans le monde en 1895. 
L'Engrais, 11, 38 (1896). 

C. M. Les garanties de solubilite des scories. L'Engrais, 15, 230 (1900). 

Cord, E. Superiorite du superphosphate sur les scories mgme dans les terres acides. 
L'Engrais, 14, 373 (1899). 

Crispo, D. Analyse des scories de dephosphoration par le procede Wagner. L'En- 
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Observations sur 1'emploi de certains engrais guanos, scories Thomas, Sang 

desseche. L'Erjgrais, 11, 130 (1896). 

Dietz, E. Perfectionnement dans la fabrication des scories basiques riches en phos- 
phate soluble, avec ou sans magn^sie ou potasse. L'Engrais, 10, 592 (1895). 

Eckel, E. C. Utilization of iron and steel slags. Bull. 213, U. S. Geol. Survey, 221 
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Elbers, A. D. Utilization of blast-furnace slags as fertilizers. Eng. and Mining Jour., 
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Emmerling, A. Mitteilungen betreffend der Reinheit der Magnesium-Pyrophos- 
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Foerster, 0. Bildung und Verhalten Basischer Calciumphosphate und ihre Bezie- 
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Ueber die Brauchbarkeit der Molybdanmethode fur die Bestimmung der 

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Freundlich, J. Zur Bestimmung der citratloslichen Phosphorsaure in Thomas- 
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FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 99 

Fresenius, H. Zur Bestimmung der zitronensaureloslichen Phosphorsaure in Thomas- 

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Gal. Falsification des scories Thomas. L'Engrais, 14, 1075 (1900). 
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Halenke, A. Citronensaurelosliche Phosphorsaure und gesammt Phosphorsaure in 

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Hartshorne, J. The basic Bessemer steel plant of the Pottstown (Penn.) Iron Co. 

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Haselhof, E. Thomas-Ammoniak-Phosphatkalk, ein neuer Minerald finger. Fuh- 

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Hoskins, H. G. Valuation of Phosphoric Acid in Basic Slag. Bull. 122, Bureau of 

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Kunstdunger-Industrie Mannheim, 11, 291 (1906). 
Knosel, Th. Ueber die Phosphorsaure im Thomasmehl. Chemiker Ztg. , 28, 38 (1904). 
Ledoux, L. Moyen de deceler les phosphates naturels ajoutes frauduleusement aux 

scories de dephosphoration. L'Engrais, 20, 880 (1905). 
Levat, D. Nouveau proced^s pour le traitement des phosphates naturels pour les 

transformer en un enojais phosphate similaire, aux scories. — tetraphosphate de 

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Lindsey, J. B. A Short Historical Review of Thomas Slag. Mass. College Exper. 

Sta. Annual Report, 22, 77 (1910). 
Lorenz, N. Von. Ueber dies unhaltbarkeit der Citratmethode zur Bestimmung der 

Phosphorsaure in Thomasschlacken. Chemiker. Ztg., 27, 495 (1903). 
Luther, W. O. Thomas- Ammoniak- Phosphat Kalk, ein neuer mineral D finger. 

Inter. Congr. angew. Chemie, 3, 892 (1904). 
Maercker, M. Ein neues Dungemittel zum Ersatz des Thomasphosphatmehles 

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Zur Bewertung der Thomasphosphatmehle nach der neuen Untersuchungs- 

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Maizieres. La Superiority du superphosphate sur cereales de printemps. L'Engrais, 

IS, 178 (1898). 
■ — Quelques mots sur les scories. L'Engrais, 10, 1140 (1895). 

Les incertitudes resultant de l'analyse des scories. Experiences contradic- 

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De la valeur de la chaux dans les engrais phosphates, superphosphates et 



scories. L'Engrais, 14, 179 (1890). 

La manipulation des scories. Precautions a prendre pour manipuler les 



scories, etc. L'Engrais, 14, 1188 (1899). 

Production des scories en Amerique. L'Engrais, 15, 134 (1900). 

Les engrais en Suede. L'Engrais, 15, 999 (1900). 

Production et consommation des scories. L'Engrais, 15, 1213 (1900). 

Les engrais phosphatees en Allemagne et en Russe. L'Engrais, 15, 1239 (1900) . 

- Scories et phosphates. L'Engrais, 18, 998 (1903). 

Notes sur les scories de dephosphoration. Nouveau procede de preparation. 



L'Engrais, 19, 1070 (1904). 

La sup&iorite du superphosphate sur les scories Thomas et la poudre d'os. 



L'Engrais, 15, 1215 (1907). 

Menozzi, A. A propos de la production des scories de dephosphoration. Les minerals 
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Morris, W. H. Basic slags as fertilizers. Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 21, 232, 
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The magnetic concentration of iron ore at the Pottstown, Pa., Iron Co.'s fur- 
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Morrow, Wm. Fertilizer facts for farmers. Cincinnati, 64 (1899). 

Muhle, K. Zur Prufung der Wagner'schen Citratlosung zur Bestimmung der citrat- 
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100 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

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Passon, M. Das Thomasmehl, seine Chemie und Geschichte. Neudamm, 71 (1900). 
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Schneidewind, W., and Meyer, D. Die Wirkung der Phosphorsaure hoch und nied- 

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Vergleich mit- Thomas-mehl und superphosphate Phosphorsaure. Jour. f. Landw., 

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Sempolovski, A. The experiments with the phosphorites and Thomas-flour at the 

Sobtschyinst. Experiment station (in Russian). Semled. Gazeta., 19, (1898). 
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Sjallema, B. Zur Werthestim mung des Thomasmehles. Jour. Landw., 50, 367 

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Sorge, R. Ueber die Bestimmung der zitronensaureloslichen Phosphorsaure in 

Thomasmehlen. Zts. angew. Chemie, 17, 393 (1904). 
Stutzer, A. Untersuchungen uber die Wirkung von Wolterphosphat. Landw. 

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Sraboda, H. Die Unbrauchbarkeit der sogenannten "Maercker-Buhringschen 

Losung" bei der Bestimmung der Gesamtphosphorsaure in Thomasmehlen. 

Chimiker. Ztg., 27, 1203 (1903). 
Tacke, Br. Die Loslichkeit der Phosphorsaure aus Thomasmehl und Rohphos- 

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Bodens an freier Humussaure. Landw. Jahrb., 27, 392 (1899). 
Thiel, O. Thomasschlacke im Martin-Betriebe. Stahl und Eisen, 18, 750 (1898). 
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Wagner, Paul, and others. Die Bestimmung der zitronsaureloslichen Phosphorsaure in 

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Svensk. Kem. Tidskr. Stockholm, 14, 135; 167 (1902). 

Zur Analyse Wiborghsphosphat und Thomasphosphat. Landw. Versuch., 

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SOUTH AMERICA. 

BRAZIL, CHILE, PERU. 

Anonymous. Les phosphates du Bresil (Rata Island, Fernando de Noronha, 300 mi. 
N. E. of Pernambuco). L'Engrais, 14, 831 (1899). 

Le commerce du guano au Chile. L'Engrais, 15, 900 (1900). 

Puissance des gisements de Guano de Punta Pichalo, Chili. L'Engrais, 15, 

1219 (1900). 

Les conditions de vente du guano de Punta Pichalo par le gouvernement 



Chilien. L'Engrais, 17, 1216 (1902). 

Importance des gisements actuels de guano du Perou. L'Engrais, 18, 1048 



(1903). 

Lasne, Henri. Analyse complete du phosphate des ties de Fernando de Noronha, 
Bresil. L'Engrais, 14, 1189 (1899). 

Origine et formation des gisements de phosphate. L'Engrais, 11, 1144; 1168; 

1192 (1896). 

Maizieres. Guano du Perou des lies Chinchas. L'Engrais, 11, 181; 206 (1896). 

Les nouveaux arrivages de guano du Perou. L'Engrais, 16, 86; 159 (1901). 

Petermann, A. Le Guano du Perou. L'Engrais, 11, 806 (1896). 

Servat, F. Consideraciones sobre la presencia del fosfato i del sulfato de aluminio 
en los guanos [Chile]. Actes soc. sci. Chili, 11, 198 (1902). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 101 

UNITED STATES. 

ALABAMA. 

Anonymous. Un gisement nouveau de phosphate en Amerique (Huntsville, Ala.) 

L'Engrais, 19, 69 (1904). 
McCalley, H. Report on the valley regions of Alabama (Paleozoic strata). Part 1. 

The Tennessee Valley region. Bull. Ala. Geol. Survey, 13, 436 (1896). 
Smith, E. A. Phosphates and marls of Alabama. Bull. Ala. Geol. Survey, 2 (1892). 

Sketch of the Geology of Alabama. Birmingham, Ala. (1892). 

The phosphates and marls of the State. Report Ala. Geol. Survey, Geology 

of the coastal plain, 449 (1894). 

The phosphates and marls of Alabama. Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng., 25, 



811 (1896). ' 
Smith, E. A. and McCalley, Henry. Index to the mineral resources of Alabama. 

Ala. Geol. Survey, 79 (1904). 
Stubbs, W. 0. Phosphates of Alabama. U. S. Geol. Surv. Min. Res., 1883-84: 794 

(1885). 

ARKANSAS. 

Anonymous. New phosphate discoveries (Tennessee, Utah, Idaho, Wyoming, 

Arkansas). Eng. and Min. Jour., 84, 530 (1907). 
Branner, J. C. The phosphate deposits of Arkansas. Amer. Inst. Min. Engs. Trans., 

26, 580 (1896). 
Purdue, A. H. The developed phosphate deposits of northern Arkansas. Bull. 

U. S. Geol. Survey, 315 (1907). 

CALIFORNIA. 

Anonymous. Discovery of apatite deposits in the Grapevine mining district, east of 
Banner, in San Diego County, California. Eng. and Min. Jour., 79, 100 (1905). 

Phosphate discovery near Escondido, San Diego County, Cal. Amer. 

Fertil., 22 (2), 17 (1905). 

Wright, Lewis T. Phosphates as a by-product in the Mountain Copper Company 
plant, Shasta County, Cal. Amer. Fertil., 22 (1), 23 (6), 11 (1905). 



Anonymous. Florida phosphates in 1910. Eng. and Min. Jour., 91, 796 (1911). 

L' exploitation des phosphates en Floride. La societe "La Floridienne." 

L'Engrais, 18, 327 (1903). 

Die Bestimmungdersesquioxide (iron and aluminium) inPhosphaten. Chem- 



iker Ztg., 28, 647 (1899). 
Le Barron, J. F. History of discovery and development of Florida phosphates. 

Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 21, 152, (1893). 
Buisman, H. J. Contributions sur les phosphates de la Floride. Recueil des Trav. 

chimiques, 11, 286 (1893). 
Butgenbach. Les phosphates de la Floride. L'Engrais, 18, 1047 (1903). 
Carnot, A. Sur le mode de formation des gites sedimentaires de phosphates de chaux. 

C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 123, 724 (1896). 
Codington, E. W. The Florida pebble phosphate. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng. Trans., 

25, 423 (1896). 
Cox, E. T. An extensive deposit of phosphate rock in Florida. Amer. Naturalist, 

24, 1185 (1890). 
Florida pebble and nodular phosphate of lime. Eng. and Min. Jour., 52, 

359 (1891). 

The Albion phosphate district, Florida. Amer. Inst. Mining Engrs., 25, 



36 (1896V 

Dall and Harris. Phosphate deposits of Florida. Bui. U. S. Geol. Survey, 84 (1892). 

Darton, N. H. Notes on the geology of the Florida phosphates. Am. Jour Sci., 3d. 
ser., 41, 102 (1891); Abs., Eng. and Min. Jour., 51, 210. 

Davidson, W. B. M. Suggestions as to the origin and deposition of the Florida phos- 
phates. Eng. and Min. Jour., 51, 628 (1891). 

Florida phosphates: origin of the boulder phosphate of the Withlacoochee 

River district. Eng. and Min. Jour., 53, 42 (1892). 



102 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OE THE UNITED STATES. 

Eldridge, G. H. A preliminary sketch of the phosphates of Florida. Amer. Inst. 

Min. Engrs. Trans., 21, 196 (1893). 
Goldsmith, E. Pea-like phosphate from Polk County, Florida. Phila. Acad. Nat. 

Sci. Proc, 10 (1890). 
Grothe, O. Mining of phosphates, with special reference to Florida phosphates. 

Techn. Mitt. deut. Am. Tech. Verbandes, 15, 1 (1910). 
Johnson, L. C. Notes on the geology of Florida; two of the lesser but typical deposits. 

Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 3, 45, 497 (1893). 
Jumeau, L. P. Composition de gisements de phosphates de chaux des Etats-Unis. 

Annales de Chimie, analyt., 412 (1906). 
■ Le Phosphate de chaux (gisements connus) et les exploitations aux Etats- 
Unis en 1905. Paris (1905). 
Klittke, M. Entwickelung, Organisation, und Leistungen der geologischen Landes- 

aufnahmen in den Vereinigten Staaten von Nord Amerika. Zts. Prakt. Geol.,* 4, 

209 (1896). 
Kost, J. Florida State geological survey. Tallahassee (1887); abs. Science, 9, 446 

(1887). 
Launay, de. New deposits of phosphates in the peninsula of Florida and their 

exploitation. Russ. Jour, of Mines, 12, 536 (1892). 
Ledoux, A. R. The phosphate beds of Florida. New York Acad. Sci. Trans., 9, 54; 

Eng. and Min. Jour., 49, 173 (1890); Scient. Amer. Suppl., 30, 12104 (1890). 
Levat, E. Davis. Etude sur l'industrie des phosphates et superphosphates (Tunisie; 

Floride; Scories basiques). Annales des Mines, 9, 7, 1 (1895). Abs. Bull. Soc. 

Chimique, ser. 3, 13, 602 (1895). 
Maizieres. Les expeditions de phosphates de la Florid es aux Etats-Unis et etranger 

depuis 1890-1896. L'Engrais, 12, 108 (1897). 
Memminger, C. G. Progress in the phosphate mining of the United States, 1900. 

Mineral Industry, 8, 513 (1900). 

Phosphate rock. Mineral Ind., 2, 531 (1894). 

Florida phosphate industry in 1910. Eng. and Min. Jour., 91, 264 (1911). 

Memminger, N. E. The Florida land pebble phosphate. Character of the deposits, 

methods of prospecting, mining, and preparing for market. Amer. Fertilizer, 23, 
(1) 5 (1905). 

Pebble phosphate: review of the existing conditions and future outlook of 

the Florida land pebble industry. Amer. Fertilizer, 23, 11 (1905). 

Millar, C. C. Hoyer. The phosphate fields of Florida. London (1891). 

Patterson, H. J. Phosphates. Phosphatic or phosphoric acid fertilizers. Bull. 

Dept. of Agric. of Penn., 94 (1902). 
Phillips, W. B. Florida land pebble phosphates. Eng. and Min. Jour., 69, 201 

(1900). 
Pratt, N. A. Florida phosphates; the origin of the boulder phosphates of the Withla- 

coochie River district. Eng. and Min. Jour., 53, 380 (1892). 
Sellards, E. H. Second Annual Report of Florida State Geologist (1909). 

A preliminary paper on the Florida phosphate deposit. Third Ann. report 

Florida State Geol. Survey (1910). 

Stone, C. A. Mining and milling Florida phosphates. Eng. and Min. Jour., 88, 3, 

1909. 
Struthers, Jos. Phosphate rock. U. S. Geol. Surv., Mineral resources, 1901, 811 

(1902); 1902, 915 (1904). 
Tucker, James F. The phosphate industry in the United States. Prepared by 

Carroll D. Wright, Commr. of Labor. Wash., D. C. (1893). 
Van Horn. The phosphate deposits of the United States. Bui. U. S. Geol. Survey, 

394, 157 (1908). 
"Verax." Visite de gisements de phosphates par les delegues de L'Institut des In- 

genieurs Americains. L'Engrais, 10, 419, (1895). 

L'industrie des phosphates en Floride. L'Engrais, 11, 36, (1896). 

Watteyne, Victor. Les phosphates de la Florida. Annales des travaux publique de 

Belgique. 49, 297 (1896); Rev. Univ. des Mines, S3, 306 (1S96); Zts. Prakt. Geol., 

4, 272 (1896). 
Wells, G. M. The Florida rock phosphate deposits. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng. 

Trans., 25, 163 (1896). 
White, F. Phosphates of America (translation in Russian by V. Anzimerovf). St. 

Petersburg (1896). 
Woolman. Our supply of phosphate and its origin. 111. Agr. 15, 36 (1911). 
Wyatt, Francis. Notes on Florida phosphate beds. Eng. and Mining Jour., 50, 218 

(1890). 

The phosphates of Florida. Eng. and Mining Jour., 53, 202 (1892). 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OP THE "UNITED STATES. 103 



GEORGIA. 



Anonymous. Decouverte de phosphate en Georgie (at Austral, Cobb Co.). L'Engrais, 

17, 281 (1903). 
McCallie, S. W. A preliminary report on a part of the phosphates and marls of 

Georgia. Bui. Ga. Geol. Survey, 50 (1896). 



KENTUCKY. 



Anonymous. Kentucky phosphate. Amer. Fertil., 32, 23 (1910). 

Rich Kentucky phosphate beds. Amer. Fertilizer, S3, 29. 31 (1910). 



Browne, David H. The distribution of phosphorous in the Ludington mine, Iron 
Mountain, Mich. Am. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans., 17, 616(1889). Am. Jour. Sci. ser. 



3, 37: 299 (1889). 



NEW YORK. 



Blake, W. P. Note on the separation of iron ore at the Sanford ore beds, Mariah, 
Essex Co., New York, in 1852 (apatite tailings). Trans. Amer. Inst. Mining Eng., 
21, 378 (1892). 

Associations of apatite with beds of magnetite. Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. 

Eng., 21, 159 (1892). 

Contributions to the early history of phosphate of lime in the United States. 



Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 21, 157 (1893). 
Kemp, J. F. The geology of the magnetites near Port Henry, N. Y., and especially 

those of Mineville. Trans. Amer. Mining Eng., 27, 146 (1898). 

Report on the Mineville-Port Henry mine group (see Newland, D . H.) 

Newland, David H. Geology of the Adirondack magnetic iron ores. With a report 

on the Mineville-Port Henry mine group, by James F. Kemp. N. Y. State Museum 

Bui. (1898). 
Ries, Heinrich. . Economic geology of the United States. New York, 147 (1905). 

NORTH CAROLINA. 

Carpenter, F. B. Note on the marls and phosphates of North Carolina. Bui. 
North Carolina Agr. Exprt. Sta. 110. L'Engrais 10, 1166 (1895). 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Anonymous. Decouverte d'un nouveau gisement de phosphate aux Etats-Unis. 

L'Engrais, 11, 303 (1896). 
Pennsylvania State Department of Agriculture. List of fertilizer manufacturers and 

brands of fertilizers licensed for sale in Pennsylvania. Harrisburg, Pa. (1907). 
Ihlseng, M. C. A phosphate prospect in Pennsylvania. U. S. Geol. Survey, 17th 

Ann. report, part III, 955 (1896). 
Stose, G. W. Phosphorus ore at Mount Holly Springs, Pennsylvania. Bui. U. S. 

Geol. Survey, 315, 474 (1907). 

SOUTH CAROLINA. 

Benedict, W. de L. Mining, washing, and calcining South Carolina land phosphates. 

Eng. and Min. Jour., 54, 349 (1893). 
Brown, L. P. The phosphate deposits of the Southern States. Eng. Assoc, of the 

South, Trans., 15, 53 (1905). 
Chazal, P. E. The century in phosphates and fertilizers. A sketch of the South 

Carolina phosphate industry. Charleston, S. C. "News and Courier," Centennial 

Edition (1904). 
Dall, W. H. Notes on the Miocene and Pliocene of Gay Head, Marthas Vineyard, 

Massachusetts; and on the land phosphate of the Ashley River district, South Caro- 
lina. Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 3, 48, 296 (1894). 
Davidson, W. B. M. Notes on the geological origin of phosphate of lime in the 

United States and Canada. Trans. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng., 21, 139 (1893). 
Maizieres. Coup d'oeil sur l'industrie extractive des phosphates en Amerique. 

(Statistics 1897-1901) L'Engrais, 16, 1070 (1901). 
Matthew, G. F. Phosphate deposits of South Carolina and New Brunswick. Bull. Nat. 

Hist. Soc, New Brunswick, 6, 121, (1910). 
Meyer, Otto. Bemerkungen tiber Phosphatlager in den Vereinigten Staaten. Zts. f. 

angew. Chemie, 4, HI (1891). 



104 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THS UNITED STATES. 

"Phospho." Les phosphates de riviere de la Caroline du Sud. "River Rock." 
L'Engrais, 21, 999 (1906). 

Reese, Charles L. On the influence of swamp waters in the formation of the phos- 
phate nodules of South Carolina. Amer. Jour. Sci. ser. 3, 43, 402 (1892). 

South Carolina Com mission. Report on the proposed operation by the state of the 
South Carolina phosphate deposits. Amer. Fertilizer, 23 (1), 20 (1905). 

Voorhees, Edw. B. Sources of supply and methods of manufacture of phosphates and 
potash salts. Jour. Franklin Inst., 160, 211 (1895). 

Wiley, Hugh. Progress in the Southern phosphate belt. Manuf. Record, Feb. 26. 
(1902). 

TENNESSEE. 

Anonymous. Tennessee phosphates. General facts relative to the phosphate 
deposits of Tennessee and an estimate of their extent. Amer. Fertilizer, 34, 21 
(1911). 

The phosphate outlook. Amer. Fertilizer, 22 (5), 20 (1905). 

"Mt. Pleasant shipments." Amer. Fertilizer, 23 (6), 24 (1905). 

Le superphosphates obtenu avec le phosphate du Tennessee, est-il plus sus- 
ceptible de retrogradation que ceux obtenus avec phosphate de la Floride ou de la 
Caroline du Sud? L'Engrais, 10, 688 (1895). 

Blackie, G. F. The American Phosphate Company's plant near Mount Pleasant, 

Tenn. Eng. & Min. Jour., 76, 7 (1900). 
Brown, L. P. Phosphate mining in Tennessee. Mineral Industry, 1896, 4, 453 (1897). 

The phosphate rock deposits of Tennessee. U. S. Geol. Survey, 19th Annual 

Report, part vi, 547 (1898). 

Eckel, E. C. The white phosphates of Decatur County, Tenn. Bull. U. S. Geol. 
Survey, 213, 424 (1903). 

A recently discovered extension of the Tennessee white phosphate fields (in 

Decatur County). U. S. Geol. Survey, Mineral Resources for 1900, 812 (1901). 

Foerste, A. F. Silurian and Devonian limestones of Tennessee and Kentucky. Bull. 

Geol. Soc. America, 12, 395 (1901). 
Hayes, C. W. The Tennessee phosphates. U. S. Geol. Survey, 16th Ann. Rept., 

pt. 4, 610 (1895). 

The Tennessee phosphates. U. S. Geol. Survey, 17th Annual Report, part 2, 

38 (1896). 

The white phosphates of Tennessee. Amer. Inst. Min. Eng. Trans., 24, 19, 

(1896). 

A brief reconnoissance of the Tennessee phosphate fields. U. S. Geol. Survey, 

20th Ann. Rep., pt, 6, 633 (1899). 

The geological relations of the Tennessee brown phosphates. Science, 12, 

1005 (1900). 

Tennessee white phosphate. U. S. Geol. Survey. 21st Ann. Rep., part 3, 



473 (1901). 

Origin and extent of the Tennessee white phosphate. Bull. U. S. Geol. 



Survey, 213, 418 (1903). 
Hayes, C. W., and Ulrich, E. O. Columbia folio, Tennessee. U. S. Geol. Survey, 

Geol. Atlas of the U. S. Folio, 95 (1903). 
Killebrew, J. B. The phosphate deposits in Maury County, Tenn. Eng. & Min. 

Jour., 63, 462 (1896). 
— — — Mining Tennessee phosphates. Abstr. Eng. & Min. Jour., 66, 68 (1898). 
Maizieres. Phosphates du Tennessee, et de File Christmas. Guano du Perou et du 

Damaraland. L. Engrais, 19, 159 (1904). 
Meadows, Thomas C, and Brown, Lytle. The phosphates of Tennessee. Eng. & 

Min. Jour., 58, 365 (1894). 
Memminger, C. G. Phqsphate deposits of Tennessee. U. S. Geol. Survey, mineral 

resources for 1S93, 709 (1893). 
■ Commercial development of the Tennessee phosphates. U. S. Geol. Survey, 

16th Ann. Rep., part iv, 631 (1895). 
Miller, Arthur M. The association of the gastropod genus Cyclora with phosphatic 

lime deposits in Tennessee. Amer. Geologist, 16, 281; 17, 74 (1895-6). 
Phillips, Wm. B. On the phosphate rock of Tennessee. Proc. Ala. Industr. & Sci. 

Soc, 4, 44 (1894). 

The phosphate rocks of Tennessee. Eng. & Min. Jour., 57, 417 (1894). 

R. A. A. Les nouveaux gisements de phosphate du Tennessee (Mount 

Pleasant). L'Engrais, 12, 156 (1897). 
Ruhm, H. D. Tennessee phosphate. American Fertilizer, 21 (5), 5 (1904). 

Phosphate mining in Tennessee. Eng. & Min. Jour., S3, 522 (1907). 

The present and the future of the Mount Pleasant phosphate field, Tennes- 
see. Eng. Asso. of the South. Trans., IS, 42 (1903). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 105 

Ruhm, J., jr. Tennessee phosphate in 1910. Eng. and Min. Jour., 91, 123 (1911). 
Safford, James M. Phosphate bearing rocks in middle Tennessee, preliminary notice. 
Amer. Geologist, IS, 107 (1894). 

Tennessee phosphate rocks. Rep. Tenn. Commr. of Agr., 16 (1895). 

A new and important source of phosphate rock in Tennessee. Amer. Geologist, 

18, 261, (1896). 

Horizons of phosphate rocks in Tennessee. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., IS, 14 



(1901). 

Safford, J. M., and Killebrew, J. B. Elements of the geology of Tennessee for the 
use of the schools of Tennessee. Nashville, 142, 208 (1900). 



Phillips, Wm. Battle. The bat guano caves of Texas. Mines and Min., 21, 440 (1901) 

UTAH, IDAHO, WYOMING. 

Anonymous. Les gisements de guano de L' Utah. L'Engrais, 12, 686 (1897). 

Utah, Idaho, Wyoming workings. Eng. and Min. Jour., 8, 893 (1906). 

Bell, R. N. Eighth Annual Report of the State Inspector of Mines on the Mining 

Industry of Idaho for 1906. (Phosphates of Bear Lake County) Boise (1907). 
■ Report of the Idaho State Inspector of Mines for 1905. (Phosphates of Bear 

Lake County, p. 19) Boise (1906). 

Ninth Annual Report of the State Inspector of Mines on the Mining Industry 



of Idaho. (Phosphate rock of Bear Lake County, p. 49) Boise (1908). 
Blackwelder, Eliot. Phosphate deposits of Ogden, Utah. Am. Fertilizer, S3, No. 

11, 13 (1910). 
Demming, J. J. Phosphate discovery on the Idaho-Wyoming border. Amer. 

Fertilizer, 22 (1), 25 (1905); 22 (5), 15 (1905). 
Gale, Hoyt S., anil Richards, Ralph W. Western phosphates. Preliminary report 

of the phosphate deposits in southeastern Idaho and adjacent parts of Wyoming and 

Utah. Am. Fertilizer, S3, (1910). 
\/ Jones, C. C. Phosphate rock m Utah, Idaho, and Wyoming. Eng. and Min. Jour., 

83, 953 (1907). 
Rice, Claude T. Western phosphate legislation. On the question of the rights of 

lode and placer locations. Eng. and Min. Jour., 91, 413 (1911). 
Waggaman, W. H. A review of "the phosphate fields of Idaho, Utah, and Wyoming. 

Am. Fertilizer, S3 (1910). 

SUPERPHOSPHATE. 

Anonymous. Proc^de pour la fabrication du superphosphate enrichi. L'Engrais, 18, 

139'(1903). 

Superphosphate industry of Russia. Chemical Industry, 33, 18 (1910). 

Cambon, V. New processes for making superphosphate. L'Engrais, 25, 243 (1910). 
Delmotte, G. Note sur l'enrichissement des craies phosphates. L'Engrais, 16, 15; 

45, 90 (1901). 
Fritsch, S. Improvements in the manufacture of acid phosphate. Rev. Chim. Ind, 

21, 41 (1910). ■ 
Menozi and Gianoli. Superphosphate industry in Italy. Ric. Lab. Chim. Agr. R. 

Scuola Sup. Agr. Milano, 8, 87 (1909). 
Pierron, L. Drying of superphosphates. Rev. Chim. Ind, 19, 328; 20, 15 (1909). 
Porter, F. B. Efficiency in acid phosphate manufacture. Jour. Ind. & Eng. 

Chem., 3 (1911). 
Scharff, Carl. Zerkleinern von Superphosphat. Chemikerztg., 22, 141, 228 (1898). 
Schueler, G. O. J. Herstellung von Doppelsuperphosphat. Chemikerztzg., 23, 440 

(1899). 
Schucht. Ueber Herstellung von Superphosphat aus eisenreichen Phosphaten. Zts. 

f. angew. Chemie, 4, 667 (1891). 
Schucht, L. Die Fabrikation des Superphosphates und Thomasmehls. Ztg. f . angew. 

Chemie, 8, 151 (1895). 
• Die Fabrikation des Superphosphates, mit Beriicksichtigung der anderen 

gebrauchlichen Dungemittel. Ein Handbuch fur den Dunger-Chemiker im Be- 

triebe und im Laboratorium. Braunschweig, 2nd Ed. (1903). 

Feuchtigkeit in Superphosphaten. Protokoll anal. -tech. Komm. Deu. 



Dunger-Fabrikanten, 1904, 88 (1905). 

Analytisches aus der Superphosphat industrie. Ztg. f. angew. Chem., 19, 

183 (1906). 

Growth of chemical activity in superphosphate manufacture.' Chem. Ztg., 



33 589 (1909). 
Skinner, R. P. ' Phosphate in Germany. U. S. Daily Cons. Trade Rpt., 1909, 349, 
183 (1909). 



106 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

West Indies. 

Anonymous. Des gisements de phosphate de l'lle Caja de Muertos. L'Engrais, 10, 
1193 (1895). 

Phosphate de Curacao (Aruba shipments Oct., 1900-Sept., 1901. L'Engrais, 

16, 1195 (1901). 

Le phosphate des lies Cygnes (Antilles). L'Engrais, 17, 688 (1902). 

Gisement de guano a Arecibo, Porto Rico (from English vice consul's report). 



L'Engrais, 17, 688 (1902). 

Les phosphates d' Aruba. L'Engrais, 18, 1219 (1903). 

Le phosphate dans Pile de Porto Rico. L'Engrais, 19, 593 (1904). 



Audouard, A. Note sur le gisements de phosphate du Grand-Connetable (N. W. of 
Cayenne, French Guiana). C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris, 119, 1011 (1894). 

Etude sur la valeur agricole du phosphate d'alumine du Grand-Conn^ctable. 

L'Engrais, 10, 267, 780 (1895). 

Guano de Porto Rico. L'Engrais, 12, 660 (1897). 



Buffet, I. Fabrication d'alumine ou sels d'alumine purs avec production de phos 
phates solubles et assimilables au moyen des phosphates naturels d'alumine. L'En 
grais, 10, 616 (1895). 

Gilbert, H. Das Vorkommen von Chrom und Iod in Phosphaten. Deu. Ges 
f. angew. Chemie (Hamburg) (1894). 

Ueber das Los Roques phosphat. Deu. Ges. f. angew. Chemie (Hamburg) 

(1894). 

Guerrero, V. Notes sur le phosphate d'alumine (de Isla Redonda). L'Engrais, 21 

619 (1906). 
Hitchkock, C. H. The Redonda phosphate. Bull. Geol. Soc. America, 2, 6 (1891) 
d'Invillers, E. V. The phosphate deposits of the island of Navassa. Bull. Geol 

Soc. America, 2, 75 (1891). 

world's production and supply. 

Anonymous. World's Production of Phosphate. Chem. Ind., <?<?, 79 (1910). 
Maizieres. Coup d'oeil d'ensemble sur le marche et la production des phosphates 

dans le monde en 1900. L'Engrais, 16, 662 (1901). 

■ La production des phosphates dans le monde. L'Engrais, 14, 995 (1899). 

Stainier, X. Bibliographie generale des gisements de phosphate de chaux. Annales 

.Soc. Geol. Belgiq, 20, 3 (1893). 

Bibliographie generale des gisements de phosphates. Annales des Mines de 

Belgique, 7, 67, 369, 772 (1902). 



Appendix C. 

MEMORANDUM ON THE MANUFACTURE OF ACID PHOSPHATE IN 
THE SOUTHERN STATES. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The acid-phosphate industry in the Southern States has grown to 
enormous proportions within the past decade. In spite of the fact 
that numerous other soluble phosphatic fertilizers have been patented 
and the application of raw ground-rock phosphate directly to the 
field has been advocated by a number of agronomists and agricul- 
tural chemists the annual production of superphosphate continues to 
increase. There is little doubt, therefore, that this material will be 
the basis of most of the commercial fertilizers for many years. 

The general procedure followed in making acid phosphate is a 
familiar one, but there are many details concerning its manufacture 
which are not generally known. It is the object of this report to 
outline the most modern methods practiced in the factories of our 
Southern States and to describe such details concerning the materials 
used, machinery employed, and methods of mixing and storing the 
superphosphate as are of economic and scientific interest. 

RAW MATERIALS. 

The raw materials used in the manufacture of acid phosphate are 
phosphate rock and sulphuric acid. 

The phosphate rock is obtained from three sources, namely, Flor- 
ida, South Carolina, and Tennessee. 

During the past few years the Florida rock has almost entirely 
displaced the phosphate from the other two States. It is claimed 
that it produces a superphosphate of more uniform composition and 
of better mechanical condition than either of the other two types of 
rock. Most of the Florida phosphate used is of the pebble variety. 
It is sold on a guaranty of 65 to 68 bone phosphate of lime, 
Ca 3 (POJ 2 , with a low content of iron and alumina. A considerable 
quantity of " fines " obtained from screening the Florida hard-rock 
phosphate is also used for making acid phosphate. These "fines" 
are too low grade for the foreign market, but make an excellent acid 
phosphate. They grade from 70 to 72 per cent bone phosphate of 
lime. 

The South Carolina rock is used principally in the Carolinas and 
Virginia. It is considerably lower in grade than either the Tennessee 

107 



108 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

or Florida phosphate, and is therefore little used at points equally 
close to the other two fields. The rock ranges from 62 to 65 per 
cent bone phosphate of lime, and produces an acid phosphate con- 
taining about 14 per cent of so-called available phosphoric acid. 
The product, however, is usually in good mechanical condition. 

There exists at present in Georgia, Alabama, and the Carolinas 
considerable prejudice against the Tennessee phosphate. The super- 
phosphate manufacturers claim that it produces an acid phosphate 
of variable composition and often in a poor mechanical condition. 
The trouble experienced from its use has been no doubt partly due 
to the fact that much of the Tennessee brown rock first put on the 
market was imperfectly cleansed, the foreign material contained in 
the interstices probably, causing the product to be sticky and the 
soluble phosphate content to vary. A much better class of rock is 
now being sold, which will in time disperse the prejudice now exist- 
ing against Tennessee phosphate. 

The sulphuric acid used in the manufacture of acid phosphate is 
ordinary chamber acid (50° to 52° Baume), and is obtained from 
the acid factories which are usually run in connection with the fer- 
tilizer plants. Some of the plants, however, use the acid obtained as 
a by-product from the copper smelters in southeastern Tennessee. 
This acid is shipped in tank cars at a strength of 60° Baume, and is 
diluted with water before mixing with the phosphate rock. 

METHOD OP MANUFACTURE. 

The phosphate rock is first put through a crusher and broken into 
pieces not larger than a walnut. This crushing is hardly necessary 
in the case of the Florida pebble phosphate or the screenings from 
the hard-rock phosphate, since the pebbles and fragments are usually 
small enough to be fed directly to the mill. 

There are a number of different types of rock mills used in the 
Southern States. Some of them combine both grinding machinery 
and screens in one. Others discharge the partly ground material 
into elevators to be subsequently screened, the coarser material being 
returned to .the mill. The latter plan seems to be more generally 
used in the southern fertilizer factories, and since the mills are 
simpler and not so apt to become clogged, they are probably more 
economical than the combined mill and screen. 

The rock is ground so that 80 to 90 per cent will pass a 60-mesh 
sieve. At some of the factories it is ground even finer, 80 per cent 
passing through an 80-mesh screen. When the rock is not screened 
in the mill it is carried by elevators and passed over screens inclined 
at an angle of 45° to 50°, which are constantly vibrated by hammers. 
The mesh of these screens is considerably coarser than the material 
which passes through, the fineness of the rock obtained depending 
on the angle of inclination. The finely ground rock is then carried 
by elevators to the storage bin, whence it is drawn as required. 

A definite weight of rock and usually an equal weight of acid are 
run into the mixer at the same time. The mixer consists usually of 
a cast-iron pan from 18 inches to 2 feet deep and having a capacity 
of 1 to 2 tons. The pan revolves slowly and is equipped with cast- 
iron or steel stirring devices. In order to facilitate the chemical 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 109 

reactions the sulphuric acid is frequently used at a temperature of 
130° F. In the open-dump system (described later) it is especially 
important that the acid be heated to a fairly high temperature, 
since the reactions in the mixer should start promptly. 1 After thor- 
oughly stirring for two to five minutes the mixture is discharged 
either into the bin directly below the mixer or into a car, which takes 
it to the storage shed and dumps it in a pile. 

Both the " den " and " open-dump " methods are employed in the 
southern fertilizer factories. Each of the two methods has features 
to recommend it. By use of the dens a product of high availability 
(so called) can be obtained in a short time, since much of the heat 
developed is conserved within the chambers and the necessary reac- 
tions take place more rapidly. The dens consist of brick or brick- 
lined chambers holding all the way from 150 to 300 tons of acid 
phosphate and are provided with doors at opposite sides, which are 
opened when the material is ready to be dug out. The floors of the 
dens are frequently constructed so that a portion can be opened and 
the material discharged into a hopper below, whence it is taken up 
by elevators and dumped on the storage pile. Both the initial cost 
and running expenses of the " den " system are greater than the 
" open-dump " method, but a high-grade superphosphate in excellent 
mechanical condition can be obtained in a short space of time by the 
former method. 

In the " open-dump " method the phosphoric acid takes consider- 
ably longer to reach its maximum availabilit} r , and unless the mixing 
has been done carefully the superphosphate may never reach the 
desired mechanical condition. On the other hand, by careful work 
and where it is unnecessary to ship the material immediately, a 
product can be obtained equal to that obtained by the " den " system 
and at a lower cost. 

At one of the southern plants a partly open bin is employed for 
holding the freshly made acid phosphate. The sides of the bin pre- 
vent the material from spreading to such an extent as to lose its 
heat. After allowing the material to stand for 8 or 10 days, it is 
raised by elevators and dumped on a storage pile. 

STORING THE ACID PHOSPHATE. 

In order that the superphosphate produced may contain a maxi- 
mum quantity of readily soluble phosphoric acid when ready for 
shipment, it is usually stored in a pile for at least two weeks. During 
this time the quantity of so-called available phosphoric acid con- 
stantly increases. This is especially true of the superphosphate made 
bjr the open-dump method, where the heat is not sufficiently great to 
bring about rapid reactions. 

* Porter, F. B. Jour. Ind. and Eng. Chem., 3, 108 (1911). 



110 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 



In the following table are given the analyses of two piles of acid 
phosphate sampled after standing certain definite periods of time: 

Table I. — Analysis of acid phosphate made by open-dump method after stand- 
ing from IS hours to 6 months. 



Time of storage. 



No. 1: 

3 days . . . 

10 days.. 

6 months 
No. 2: 

13 hours. 

3 days... 

6 months 



Avail- 


Insoluble 


able phos- 


phos- 


phoric 


phoric 


acid. 


acid. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


15.70 


2.05 


16.63 


1.02 


16.93 


.47 


15.55 


1.50 


15 70 


1.80 


17.19 


.18 



Moisture. 



Per cent. 
12.80 
12.70 
13.80 



12.60 
13.94 



Although the so-called available phosphoric acid continues to in- 
crease after storing for some time, the moisture content also fre- 
quently increases, so it is doubtful whether it is desirable to keep the 
material for any great length of time except in a very dry atmos- 
phere. 

COST OF PRODUCTION. 

The cost of producing acid phosphate depends on a number of 
factors, which vary between rather wide limits. These are the size, 
location, and equipment of the plant and the cost of the sulphuric 
acid employed in the process. 

The use of rock mills which will grind the largest quantity of 
rock with the least expenditure of time and power, and the employ- 
ment of mixers having a capacity of 2 tons instead of 1 ton, tend to 
reduce the cost of acid phosphate per ton. Plants located at sea- 
ports, where the cost of manufacturing sulphuric acid is less and 
the price of Florida rock usually lower, can often produce acid 
phosphate cheaper than those located at inland points. On the other 
hand, factories located at inland points which are within easy access 
of the phosphate fields can obtain their phosphate rock cheaper than 
those more distant from the source of supply. Again, those plants 
which have their own acid factories can manufacture sulphuric acid 
cheaper than it can be bought by companies which do not make 
their own acid. 

The initial cost of producing acid phosphate by the den system is 
greater than by the open-dump method, but since the material can 
be shipped much sooner when made by the former method less in- 
terest is lost on the money invested. 

At inland points such as Atlanta, Augusta, and Birmingham the 
cost of producing acid phosphate (16 per cent citrate soluble), ex- 
clusive of office expenses, varies from $6.75 to $8 per ton. At sea- 
ports such as Charleston, Savannah, Baltimore, and Norfolk the 
cost ranges from $6.20 to $7.50 per ton. 

The following itemized statement gives the cost of producing acid 
phosphate at a plant running under good conditions located at a 
seaport and using Florida phosphates: 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. Ill 

Average cost per ton (2,000 pounds) of acid phosphate at plant located at sea- 
port and running at full capacity of 500 tons per week on the den system. 

Phosphate rock (1,133 pounds), at $5.09 per ton $2,576 

Sulphuric acid (1,080 pounds), at $4.75 per ton 2.565 

Direct labor .264 

Five-eighths superintendent's salary . 091 

Power, oil, and waste . 232 

Insurance on $60,000 at 1.55 per cent . 035 

Taxes on $75,000 at 1.25 per cent .036 

Depreciation on $60,000 "kt 10 per cent . 231 

Interest on $75,000 at 6 per cent . 173 

Total cost per ton 6. 203 

W. H. Waggaman. 



Appendix D. 
MEMORANDUM ON THE MANUFACTURE OF SULPHURIC ACID. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The basis of nearly all commercial fertilizers is soluble phosphoric 
acid. Since phosphoric acid is usually obtained in this condition 
by the action of sulphuric acid on various phosphatic substances, the 
manufacture of this latter acid is very closely allied with the fer- 
tilizer industry. Almost every fertilizer plant (excepting the cot- 
tonseed meal factories) with an annual capacity of 15,000 tons or 
more has, in connection with it, a sulphuric-acid plant. In Georgia 
alone the annual production of sulphuric acid for the fertilizer trade 
is over 260,000 tons, and besides this considerable acid is shipped 
into the State from the smelters in southeastern Tennessee. 

The manufacture of sulphuric acid has been described by numerous 
authors, notably Lunge, Gilchrist, Thorpe, Falding, Sorel, Raschige, 
Hurter, and Schertel. 

Lunge, particularly, has entered into great detail concerning the 
materials used, the construction of the chambers, labor required, 
yield of acid, and cost of production. 

The method of manufacture to-day is essentially the same as it 
was at the time these authors wrote upon the subject; but in view 
of the fact that a few years bring about great changes in labor con- 
ditions and cost of materials and that certain companies have intro- 
duced new details into their acid factories, it is thought desirable 
to outline the general method of procedure followed in the Southern 
and Eastern States, to describe such innovations as affect the cost of 
production and yield of acid, and to discuss other details of scientific 
and economic interest. 

The sulphuric acid for the fertilizer trade is practically all pro- 
duced by the lead-chamber method. The contact process for making 
strong sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol is employed at several chemi- 
cal works in this country, but little or none of this acid is used in 
making superphosphate, since it is somewhat more expensive and 
unnecessarily pure for fertilizer purposes. A plant manufacturing 
acid by this process requires very close supervision by a well-trained 
chemist and superintendent. 

Although acid of 50° Baume, the strength required for making 
acid phosphate, can no doubt be made more cheaply by the chamber 
process, there are numerous plants which are in such bad repair 
or run so inefficiently that the cost of acid per ton, of the above 
strength, is considerably higher than the cost of that made at some 
of the contact plants. Strong acid can be made more cheaply at a. 

112 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 113 

well-run plant employing a contact process, since it requires no con- 
centrating by evaporation in expensive platinum vessels. 
In this report only the chamber process is described. 

RAW MATERIALS. 

The raw materials required for the manufacture of sulphuric acid 
are pyrites, or crude sulphur, and saltpeter or nitric acid. 

In the South pyrites are used almost entirely. The lump ore is 
obtained chiefly from Spain and contains from 48 to 52 per cent of 
sulphur. It is sold on the long-ton basis and is worth f . o. b. at the 
ports 12^ to 13 cents per unit. 1 The domestic ore is obtained from 
Virginia, Georgia, and Tennessee. Much of it is in the form of 
" fines " and has to be burnt in a special furnace described below. 

The oxides of nitrogen required in the chamber process are derived 
from either sodium nitrate or nitric acid. Chile saltpeter is used 
almost entirely at the southern acid factories. It costs at the ports 
about $44 per ton of 2,000 pounds. 

METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. 

The lead-chamber process for manufacturing sulphuric acid is 
based on the union of sulphur dioxide ( S0 2 ) with the oxygen of the 
air to form sulphur trioxide. This union is brought about by the 
catalytic action of the higher oxides of nitrogen and takes place in 
the presence of water vapor. The water present combines with sul- 
phur trioxide to form sulphuric acid, thus setting free the oxides of 
nitrogen to act upon fresh gases. 

If lump ore is used the pyrites are burned in brick furnaces having 
a grate composed of single square bars, which can be turned upon 
their longitudinal axes in order to let the cinders down into the ash 
pit. The furnaces hold from 3 to 5 tons each and are arranged in 
batteries of 20 to 25 for each set of lead chambers. Each furnace is 
charged with from T50 to 1,000 pounds of ore every 24 hours. The 
burners for the pyrites " fines " has a series of shelves so arranged 
that the burning material can be mechanically raked from one shelf 
to another. This insures perfect combustion and prevents clinkers 
from forming in the furnace. The rakes are attached to a central 
water-cooled shaft. The mechanical or rotary furnaces vary in ca- 
pacity from 2,400 pounds to 40,000 pounds of pyrites per day (24 
hours). The two types employed in the South are the Herreshoff 
and the Wedge burners. 

The gases from the pyrites burners are forced into a dust chamber 
or flue, fitted with baffles to hasten the deposition of the finely divided 
pyrites, and the oxides of iron, zinc, arsenic, and antimony carried 
over by the draft. It is highly important that most of these oxides 
be removed from the burner gases before they enter the system, since 
the dust not only contaminates the acid but clogs and cuts down the 
efficiency of the Glover tower. The dust chambers are frequently 
constructed so that a portion may be shut off and cleansed without 
interfering with the operation of the furnaces. 

X A unit is 1 per cent, or 22.4 pounds, of sulphur to a long ton. 
20827°— S. Doc. 190, 62-2 8 



114 FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The oxides of nitrogen are either introduced into the flue by the 
action of sulphuric acid upon sodium nitrate or sprayed into the 
system in the form of nitric acid or sometimes as a solution of 
sodium nitrate in water. The first of these methods is used almost 
entirely at the sulphuric-acid plants in the South and East, but the 
use of nitric acid has much to recommend it. 

The mixture of gases is led from the flue into the Glover tower, 
which consists of a lead tower (usually from 20 to 30 feet in height 
and 6 to 8 feet across) lined with acid-resisting brick and partly 
filled with quartz or vitrified brick. At the top of the tower is an 
apparatus for distributing dilute nitrous vitriol (brought from the 
Gay Lussac tower), which trickles through the Glover tower. The 
heat from the burner gases drives off both water and the oxides of 
nitrogen from this dilute acid. 

The uses of the Glover tower, therefore, are threefold: First, to 
cool the hot gases from the pyrites burners; second, to reintroduce 
water and the oxides of nitrogen into the system; and, third, to 
produce an acid more concentrated than that formed in the lead 
chambers. 

From the Glover tower the gases pass into the first of the lead 
chambers where most of the sulphuric acid is made. The chambers 
are usually large, square or oblong boxes made of sheet lead (weigh- 
ing from 6 to 8 pounds to the square foot) and having a capacity of 
25,000 to 75,000 cubic feet each. 

The old method of constructing chambers — and, indeed, it is still 
largely practiced — is to suspend the chamber like a huge bottomless 
box over a lead pan from 1.5 to 2 feet deep in such a way that the 
lower ends of the chamber walls dip deep into the pan. The acid formed 
in the pan acts as a seal, preventing the escape of the chamber gases. 
Many chambers are now constructed in one section, the lower end 
of the chamber walls being sealed directly to the upper edge of the 
acid pan. This method has the advantage of requiring less lead. 
Considerable advantage has been claimed for the tall type of cham- 
ber, but with the exception of the acid plants in connection with the 
copper smelters it has not been employed in the Southern States. 

Water in the form of steam or very fine spray is introduced into the 
first chamber. This decomposes the nitrosulphuric acid into sul- 
phuric acid and returns the oxides of nitrogen to the system. Water 
sprays are used in preference to steam. 

The gases pass from the first to the second chamber and so on 
through the system, sulphuric acid being formed until the sulphur 
dioxide is practically exhausted. The residual gases, which consist 
largely of the oxides of nitrogen, finally arrive at the Gay Lussac 
tower, which is similar in construction to the Glover tower, except 
that it is usually taller and wider (from 40 to 50 feet tall and 8 to 
15 feet across). It is partly filled with hard coke, down which 
trickles strong sulphuric acid (1.5 to 1.7 specific gravity). 

The higher oxides of nitrogen are absorbed by acid of this strength, 
which, after diluting, is returned to the system through the medium 
of the Glover tower, as already described. 

EFFICIENCY. 

The efficiency of an acid plant is measured, first, by the amount of 
chamber space required for each pound of sulphur burned in 24 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 115 

hours and the quantity of acid (50° Baume or 1.53 specific gravity) 
made therefrom, and, second, on the amount of niter consumed or 
lost in the production of this acid. 

Numerous patents have been taken out with a view to cutting 
down the chamber space required. Some of these have proved fairly 
successful and are used at a number of the acid plants in the South- 
ern States. The chamber space required for the production of acid 
may be decreased by a more thorough mixing of the gases and by 
cooling them down so that the acid produced will condense more 
quickly. In a patented process, much used in the South, the gases 
are drawn through the first chamber by means of a fan, then through 
a tower down which flows dilute sulphuric acid, and finally they are 
reinjected into the front of the first chamber by means of the same 
fan. This circulatory system is very complete, and there are prac- 
tically no dead corners in the first chamber. This system requires 
only 8 to 9 feet of chamber space for every pound of sulphur burned 
in 24 hours and produces 1 pound of sulphuric acid (50° Baume) 
for every 1.5 to 1.7 cubic feet of chamber space. 

Other methods for cutting down the chamber space depend on 
the cooling effect on the gases obtained by passing them through 
towers arranged inside with corrugated pipes or with plates over 
which dilute sulphuric acid trickles. The heat necessary to drive 
off the water from this acid cools the gases and also furnishes the 
water vapor for further production of chamber acid. 

In another patented process, known as the tangent system, as em- 
ployed at a plant in Baltimore, Md., the gases entering near the 
top of the chamber are given a spiral motion, which seems to accel- 
erate the reactions and consequently increases the yield of acid. A 
series of water-cooled pipes are suspended from the top of the cham- 
ber to aid in cooling the gases and condensing the acid formed. The 
uncondensed gases are lead through a pipe or flue in the center of 
the chamber bottom to the next chamber, where the same process 
takes place. 

This system requires but 6 cubic feet of chamber space for every 
pound of sulphur burned in 24 hours. But the consumption of 
niter for such production is about 5.5 per cent of the sulphur burned. 

In the chamber process the consumption of niter varies all the 
way from 3 to 7 per cent of the sulphur burned. In order to avoid 
loss of the oxides of nitrogen, the Gay Lussac tower must be tall 
enough and packed in such a way that the acid flowing over the coke 
will have ample time and present sufficient surface to absorb these 
gases before they can escape through the stack. There must also 
be enough oxygen present in the system to prevent the reduction of 
these gases to lower oxides of nitrogen, which are not absorbed by 
strong sulphuric acid. During the summer the nitrate consumption 
is greater than during the winter, but a low average to run on is from 
3 to 4 per cent of the sulphur burned. 

COST OF PRODUCTION. 

The average cost of manufacturing sulphuric acid is rather difficult 
to estimate. The cost varies considerably, depending on the size, 
type, and location of the acid plant, as well as on the skill with which 
it is operated. 



116 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

Since the raw materials are nearly all imported, and can be 
delivered at the ports considerably cheaper than at inland points, 
the cost of production is usually less at the coast towns. The lower 
cost of materials, however, is in a measure counterbalanced by the 
higher cost of labor at the seaports. When the acid plant is run in 
connection with the superphosphate factory, which is usually the 
case, it is difficult to know just how much labor, repairs, and power 
to charge to each department. The overhead charges also vary be- 
tween rather wide limits, depending on the size and number of plants 
operated by the company. In order to bring the cost of production 
at the various plants to, as near as possible, an equal basis, the over- 
head or office charges are not included in the following estimates. 

At the coast towns the cost of sulphuric acid varies from $4.50 to 
$5 per ton. At inland points, such as Augusta, Atlanta, and Birming- 
ham, it varies from $6 to $6.30 per ton. 

The following summary shows the itemized cost of production at 
a plant running at a high degree of efficiency. 

Cost of suplmric acid per ton (50° Baume') at plant producing J t 00 tons per week. 
[Total investment, $100,000; cost of plant, $75,000.] 

Labor and repairs $0. 90 

Niter, 17.73 pounds (5 per cent of sulphur burned) .39 

Pyrites (788 pounds) 2.46 

Interest on investment of $100,000 at 6 per cent .29 

Insurance on $75,000, at 1J per cent . 05 

Taxes on $100,000, at 1J per cent . 06 

Depreciation on $75,000, at 10 per cent . 36 

Total cost of production 4. 51 

The above cost is for a plant located at a seaport town, where the 
price of raw materials is lowest. The plant required but 1.75 cubic 
feet of chamber space for every pound of acid made in 24 hours. 

This production is considered by many acid makers as too high for 
the amount of chamber space. In other words, a system driven at 
this rate not only loses sulphur, but is soon eaten away by the hot 
gases under pressure. The author's observations do not bear out 
this opinion. Although some of the plants which had been worked 
under pressure were in need of repair after several years of opera- 
tion, fully as many were in good condition after having been run for 
six to eight years. An allowance of 10 per cent should be ample to 
cover the depreciation at any plant run by a competent superin- 
tendent. 

The consumption of sulphur per pound of sulphuric acid produced 
does not appear to be any greater at a plant which is being run 
under pressure, but the consumption of niter is frequently higher 
(4 to 5.5 per cent as against 3 and 3.5) than it is at a factory where 
the rate of production is lower. 

Suppose, now, the operations at the above plant were being car- 
ried on at one-half the speed, as is the case with a number of acid 
factories in the South. At best, the depreciation on such a plant 
would hardly fall below 5 per cent of the investment, and if it 
requires twice the time to produce the same amount of acid as when it 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 117 

is run under pressure, the depreciation per ton would not only be the 
same but all the other costs (excepting niter and pyrites) would be 
doubled. 

Revising, therefore, the cost of production on this basis, we have : 

Cost of sulphuric acid per ton (50° Baume) at plant producing 200 tons per %oeek. 
[Total investment, $100,000; cost of plant, $75,000.] 

Labor and repairs $1. 80 

Niter (3 per cent of sulphur burned), 10.64 pounds .23 

Pyrites 2.46 

Interest on investment of $100,000, at 6 per cent . 58 

Insurance on $75,000, at li per cent .10 

Taxes on $100,000, at U per cent .12 

Depreciation on $75,000, at 5 per cent .36 

Total cost per ton 5.65 

WASTE MATERIAL. 

In the manufacture of sulphuric acid there are two main sources 
of waste, namely, the loss of sulphur from the imperfect combustion 
of the pyrites or the lack of sufficient oxygen in the lead chambers 
and the loss of the oxides of nitrogen by their escape through the 
Gay Lussac tower. 

In a good works' practice the pyrites should be burned so that the 
cinders contain less than 3 per cent of sulphur. If, however, the fur- 
nace charges are excessive or the draft is insufficient, the furnaces 
become too hot and " scarring " or the formation of clinkers inclosing 
unburned pyrites occurs. The formation of these clinkers cuts off 
the draft still further, and sulphur is driven off and sublimes in 
the dust flue or Glover tower, and the whole furnace frequently has 
to be shut off while the clinkers are broken up and removed. Such 
a condition also causes loss of sulphur dioxide through the system, 
because the supply of oxygen is not sufficient for the formation of 
sulphuric acid. With proper regulation of the draft, however, the 
loss of sulphur can be reduced to a minimum. 

The consumption of niter is more serious and in the best regulated 
systems has never been reduced below 3 per cent of the sulphur 
burned, the loss sometimes running as high as 12 to 14 per cent. The 
object of the Gay Lussac tower is to reduce this loss as far as possi- 
ble by absorbing the oxides of nitrogen and returning them to the 
system through the medium of the Glover tower, as previously de- 
scribed. If these oxides are reduced, the strong acid trickling down 
the Gay Lussac tower does not absorb the lower oxides, and they 
escape into the atmosphere and are lost. 

Imperfect combustion of the sulphur or pyrites is attended by a 
higher consumption of niter, due to the reduction of the higher 
oxides. On the other hand, too much draft dilutes the gases in the 
chambers to such an extent that more of the higher oxides are re- 
quired to effect the necessary reactions. In spite of the great amount 
of absorbent surface exposed by the acid in the Gay Lussac tower, 
some of the higher oxides of nitrogen escape into the atmosphere. 
A more efficient means of absorbing these gases and an economic 



118 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

method of oxidizing the lower oxides and returning them to the 
system would mean a considerable reduction in the cost of producing 
sulphuric acid. 

The niter cake or sodium sulphate formed by the action of sul- 
phuric acid on sodium nitrates is sometimes sold, but more frequently 
thrown away, since the cost of handling it is almost as great as the 
price obtained for the material. A method for treating this material 
and rendering it commercially valuable would reduce the cost of acid 
making in some instances very appreciably. It is to be hoped that 
it may be available in some such process as the recently described 
Firmin Thompson method of treating orthoclase for potash. 

W. H. Waggaman. 



Appendix E. 
MEMORANDUM ON AMMONIUM SULPHATE. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The necessity for conserving resources and preventing wanton 
waste, together with the realization that added profits are possible, 
are leading to a displacement of the old wasteful bee-hive oven by 
the modern by-product type. The increasing demand for ammonium 
sulphate has aided this desirable movement, for within the past few 
years the consumption of this material as a fertilizer has grown to 
large proportions and the domestic production does not meet the 
demand. The deficit is partly met by foreign importations, which 
greatly exceed the present domestic production. 

SOURCES OF AMMONIA. 

Ammonia is produced from several industrial sources. First, in 
the coking of coal, large supplies of coke being required for" fur- 
nace, foundry, and domestic uses. Second, in the manufacture of 
illuminating gas, which involves essentially the same process. Third, 
in the manufacture of bone black for sugar refining. Fourth, from 
the gases of blast furnaces. Besides these sources, animal ammo- 
niates are produced in large quantities at the abattoirs throughout 
the country, but these products are used directly as fertilizers with- 
out actually extracting the ammonia. 

In this country almost the entire supply of ammonia and ammo- 
nium sulphate is obtained from the various types of by-product coke 
ovens and gas works, and to these industries recourse must be had 
to supply the growing demand for this form of nitrogenous fer- 
tilizer. 

THEORETICAL AMOUNT OF RECOVERABLE AMMONIA. 

In the destructive distillation (or coking) of bituminous coal three 
main volatile by-products are obtained, namely, tar, gas, and ammo- 
nia. The last of these products is the most valuable, but the quan- 
tity produced is considerably less than of the other two products. 

Our West Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Alabama coal will yield, 
generally speaking, about 1 per cent of its weight in ammonium sul- 
phate. Theoretically, therefore, the quantity of ammonium sul- 
phate recoverable is 1 per cent of the bituminous coal consumed. 
Since much of the coal is burned as fuel, no such production of sul- 
phate can be realized, but it is highly important that the ammonia 

119 



120 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

should be recovered from all the coal subjected to dry distillation. 
This would not only be practical, but highly profitable. 

METHODS OF MANUFACTURING SULPHATE OF AMMONIA. 

There are three different processes employed in the extraction of 
ammonia by the destructive distillation of bituminous coal and the 
conversion of this ammonia into sulphate. These are the direct 
method, the indirect method, and the Feld process. 

The first two involve the use of sulphuric acid, into which the 
ammonia gas is passed, but in the Feld process the sulphur in the 
gaseous products is utilized to convert the ammonia into sulphate. 
More or less detailed descriptions of these three methods are given 
by Atwater. 1 

In the indirect method the tar and gases coming from the retorts 
or coke ovens are passed through a series of condensers, where the 
tar and some weak ammonia liquor are separated. The gas contain- 
ing most of the ammonia then passes into the gas washers, which con- 
sist of iron cylinders divided into compartments by perforated iron 
plates. Cold water flowing from the top of the towers or cylinders 
absorbs the ammonia from the gases bubbling up through the holes 
in the plates. The solution of ammonia and ammonium salts thus 
produced is known as weak or crude liquor and contains from 0.5 
to 2 per cent of ammonia. 

The crude or weak liquor is then pumped to the storage tanks, 
from which it flows to the stills. 

The stills vary somewhat in detail, but the general arrangement 
is the -same. The still proper is in two sections. In the upper part 
the free ammonia is driven off from the weak liquor by a current of 
steam, and in the lower part the fixed ammonium salts are decom- 
posed by lime and the ammonia likewise driven off by steam. The 
ammonia gas is then led below the surface of sulphuric acid con- 
tained in a saturator until the ammonium sulphate crystallizes out. 

The saturator or neutralizer consists of a lead-lined vessel filled 
with sulphuric acid and mother liquor from previously crystallized 
ammonium sulphate. The gases enter through a pipe or bell, also 
of lead, which dips below the surface of the liquid so that the am- 
monia is forced to bubble up through the acid, thus insuring perfect 
absorption. The waste gases are carried off by a flue or utilized to 
heat the weak ammonia liquor before its introduction into the still. 

The partly crystallized ammonium sulphate solution in the satu- 
rator is discharged through an ejector into lead-lined troughs, where 
the salt continues to crystallize as the solution cools. The mother 
liquor is decanted off and returned to the saturator. 

This form of saturator is worked continuously, fresh acid and 
ammonia vapors being constantly introduced. Sometimes, how- 
ever, two saturators are alternately employed, the gas being switched 
to one while the crystallized salt is removed from the other. 

The ammonium sulphate is centrifuged or dried in a mechanical 
drier until it contains less than 1 per cent of moisture. It is then 
carried to the storage bins by means of a belt conveyer. 

1 " Plants for Sulphate of Ammonia." Advance paper written for sixth annual meeting 
of Amer. Gas Inst., 1911. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 121 

In the direct process as employed at some of the coke-oven plants 
the ammonia is absorbed directly by sulphuric acid without being 
first converted into crude ammonia liquor. In this process the tem- 
perature of the gas and acid employed is kept down in order to pre- 
vent the acid from reacting with the organic constituents of the 
gas. A certain quantity of weak liquor is produced in the con- 
densers by this process. This must be treated in a still in order to 
make the recovery efficient. 

The Feld process differs considerably from those just outlined. 
The gases from the distillation of the coal are led up through a 
washer, down which flows a solution of iron sulphate (FeS0 4 ) and 
iron thiosulphate (FeS 2 3 ). This solution reacts with both the 
ammonia and hydrogen sulphide in the gases, forming ammonium 
sulphate, ammonium thiosulphate, and iron sulphide. The iron 
sulphide is separated by both decantation and by means of a filter 
press, and is then regenerated or converted into iron thiosulphate 
and free sulphur by passing sulphur dioxide through the sludge. 
The sulphur is removed by means of a filter press and the solution 
of thiosulphate returned to the washer and used again. 

The solution of ammonium thiosulphate and ammonium sulphate 
passes into a tank, where it is also treated with sulphur dioxide and 
then heated by a steam coil, which precipitates sulphur and converts 
the thiosulphate into sulphate. The precipitated sulphur is sepa- 
rated by a filter press and burned to produce the sulphur dioxide 
required in this process. 

The solution of ammonium sulphate is then boiled under reduced 
pressure and the salt thus separated by crystallization. 

PRODUCTION OF AMMONIUM SULPHATE IN UNITED STATES. 

Although the number of by-product coke ovens is increasing every 
year, the quantity of ammonia still lost in the continued coking of 
coal in the old beehive type far exceeds that actually saved. 

The latest official figures of the United States Geological Survey 
are for 1910. These give the quantity of coal coked for blast fur- 
naces and domestic use as 63,088,327 tons. This tonnage should have 
yielded approximately 630,000 tons of ammonium sulphate or its 
equivalent in ammonia, valued at over $30,000,000, but there were 
actually marketed only 35,000 tons of ammonium sulphate, 4,654,282 
gallons of ammonia liquor, and 10,115 tons of anhydrous ammonia, 
with a total valuation of $3,862,196. 

The quantity of ammonia and ammonium compounds obtained 
from the coking of bituminous coals is only about 13 per cent of the 
quantity which can be saved. According to figures compiled by At- 
water x this country cokes nearly as much coal as England and Ger- 
many combined, yet produces less than one-sixth as much ammonia. 

On the following page is given a list of the number of by-product 
coke ovens in each State. Some of these are still in course of con- 
struction, and a few are not running. The ovens vary in coking 
capacity from 6 to 15 tons of coal every 20 to 24 hours. 

1 Production of Sulphate of Ammonia in 1910, American Coal Products Co., No. 7. 



122 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES, 



State. 



Alabama 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

New Jersey... 



Ovens built 

and 
building. 



620 

480 
610 
200 
400 
162 
50 
150 



State. 



New York. 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania. 
West Virginia. 
Wisconsin 

Total.... 



Ovens built 

and 
building. 



556 
174 
1,596 
120 
160 



5,278 



According to figures compiled by the United States Geological 
Survey the coal coked in 1910 in by-product ovens amounted to 
9,529,042 tons, with a theoretical production of 95,290 tons of ammo- 
nium sulphate. This theoretical production is not equal to the im- 
portations, and the actual production — 35,124 tons — is a little more 
than a third of the importations. 

The by-product coke industry in former years centered chiefly 
about the bituminous coal fields. Now,_ however, large batteries of 
coke ovens have been built and are building near the supplies of iron 
ore in the Great Lakes region. The close proximity of large cities 
offers a ready market for the gas produced, but the demand for am- 
monium sulphate is not as great as it is farther east and south. 

COST OF PRODUCTION. 

Since ammonia or ammonium sulphate is only one of the by- 
products obtained in the gas or coke industry, it is very difficult to 
arrive at the actual cost of production. An expensive by-product 
recovery plant is necessary to make the saving of ammonia possible, 
but the recovery of both tar and gas is also effected by such a plant. 
The value of all products (particularly the gas) varies considerably, 
depending on the location of the plant; so it is almost impossible to 
know what is the average charge which should be made against each 
of the products. The size of the gas or coke oven plant also affects 
the cost of production. Some ovens hold a charge of 6 tons of coal, 
while others have a capacity fully twice as great, without costing 
proportionately more. 

Fulton 1 gives the cost of one of the most modern types of by- 
product plants at $5,800 per oven, including the by-product recovery 
plant. This cost was for a plant of medium size, however, and would 
no doubt be materially reduced in a larger plant. The following 
values and costs are based on coal containing 30 per cent of volatile 
material, coked at a modern plant of about 200 ovens. 

The figures by no means apply to all types of ovens and will vary 
according to the size and location of the plant. 



*Coke, 2d edition (1909). 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 



123 



Value of by-products obtained in coking 1 ton of coal {containing 30 per cent 

volatile matter). 



Material. 


Amount obtained. 


Market 
value. 


Per cent 
of total 
value. 


Coke 




$2.42 
.14 
.60 
.51 


65.95 


Tar 




3.81 


Gas (surplus) 


4,000 cubic feet 


16.35 






13.89 








Total 


3.67 


100. 00 









Total cost of manufacturing above products. 

Coal, per ton $1,190 

Labor, per ton of coal .420 

Interest on investment, at 6 per cent .102 

Depreciation, at 5 per cent .084 

Total cost 1. 796 

Cost of manufacturing ammonium sulphate (20 pounds). 

Cost of ammonia (13.89 per cent of $1.79) $0,249 

Cost of manufacturing ammonium sulphate from ammonia : 

Labor . 044 

Lime .008 

Acid . 116 

Bags . 006 

Interest on sulphate plant, at 6 per cent .003 

Depreciation on sulphate plant, at 5 per cent . 002 

Ammonium sulphate : 

Total cost for 20 pounds . 42S 

Cost per ton of 2,000 pounds 42.80 

AMMONIUM SULPHATE AS A FERTILIZER. 



Nitrogen in the form of nitrates or ammoniates is the most ex- 
pensive of the so-called plant foods. 

For concentrated high-grade mixtures the animal ammoniates and 
vegetable nitrogen carriers contain too much natural filler. The 
nitrogen in these fertilizers is not as quickly " available " as it is in 
the soluble nitrates and ammonium salts. Nitrate of soda, on the 
other hand, has the objectionable quality of being deliquescent or 
absorbing moisture from the atmosphere. In mixed fertilizers the 
salt causes caking or hardening of the mixture, which makes the ma- 
terial difficult to distribute. 

Ammonium sulphate, when properly made, is a dry salt, readily 
soluble in water. The commercial product is sold on a guarantee of 
25 per cent ammonia, much of it running above this figure. As a 
nitrogen carrier for high-grade mixed goods containing no free lime 
it has much to recommend it. 

W. H. Waggaman. 



Appendix F c 

"ALKALI" CRUSTS CONTAINING 0.5 PER CENT OR MORE OF 

POTASH. 



Cata- 
logue 
No. 


Per cent 

of 
soluble 
salts. 


Per cent 
of Kin 
soluble 
salts. 


Per cent 

of Kin 

soil. 


Locality. 


450S 


13.75 


13.67 


1.89 


Center sec. 15, R. 4 W., 4 miles southwest, care of Buckeye Mari- 
copa County, Ariz. 


4518 


47.31 


9.64 


4.56 


§ mile from bank of river, f mile south of Buckeye, Maricopa 
County, Ariz. 


4536 


4.93 


10.16 


.50 


Salts from side of bluff on north side of Salt River, Phoenix, 15 
miles southwest headwaters St. Johns Canal, Buckeye, Mari- 
copa County, Ariz. 


4543 


6.09 


13.14 


.80 


Crust from bottom of New Arlington Canal, at waste gate, Buck- 
eye, 5 miles southwest. 


6517 


27.04 


2.10 


.56 


Center north side S. 27, T. 80, R. 24 W., Yuma County, Ariz. 


6518 


37.81 


2.26 


.85 


Southwest corner 6-40 S., 31 T. S. & R. 23 W., Yuma County, 

Ariz. 
Center south side 13-40 S. 36, 98 S., R. 23 W., Yuma County, Ariz. 


6520 


13.91 


4.87 


.67 


6521 


14.90 


3.59 


.53 


North side 12-40 S. 1, T. 9 S., R. 24 W., Yuma County, Ariz. 


6522 


19.86 


4.63 


.91 


North side S. 33 T. N. side old international boundary line, 
Yuma County, Ariz 


6523 


7.71 


6.50 


.50 


Center sec. 17, T. 9 S., R. 24 W., Yuma County, Ariz. 


6525 


20.01 


4.24 


.85 


6-40 D. 9, T. 10 S., R. 24 W., Yuma County, Ariz. 


6526 


47.41 


1.77 


.84 


14-40 sec. 6, T. 10 S., R. 24 W., Yuma County, Ariz. 


544(1) 


12.96 


1.86 


.61 


Fine sandy loam, Yuma County, Ariz. 


4661 


11.80 


7.22 


.85 


100 yards east of dunes mentioned in Oxnard. Oxnard 3 miles 
west, Ventura County, Cal. 


4662 


19.93 


5.48 


1.09 


Edge of lake, 2 miles southwest of house on Patterson ranch, 
Oxnard, Ventura County, Cal. 


4664 


22.08 


6.02 


1.32 


From roadside by experiment farm, 1 mile northwest house on 
Patterson ranch, Oxnard, Ventura County, Cal. 


4665 


15.06 


8.26 


1.24 


From roadside h mile east of house on Patterson ranch, Oxnard, 
Ventura County, Cal. 


4794 


57.64 


1.11 


.63 


From bank of slough near sand dunes, Patterson ranch, Oxnard, 
Ventura County, Cal. 


4889 


54.24 


1.26 


.68 


Center west side sec. 11, T. 17 S., R. 21 E., 2 miles west and 8 south 
of Selma, Cal. 


6182 


63.85 


.82 


.52 


Lot 56, La Colonia rancho, Ventura County, Cal. 


6183 


41.71 


1.54 


.62 


\ mile west of Hueneme from bank of sloughs, inside sand dunes, 
Ventura County, Cal. 


6188 


38.52 


1.42 


.50 


£ mile west of junction of Legurna and Wood Roads, Ventura 
County, Cal. 


713a 


37.55 


10.64 


4.00 


4-40, S. 13, T. 41 N., R. 35 E., San Luis Valley, Colo. 


1107a 


18 60 


2.99 


.54 


North Platte, Nebr. 


1166a 


9.87 


11.55 


1.14 


Bridewood Ranch, North Platte, Nebr. 


439a 


82.96 


3.77 


3.12 


Texas. 


6673 


14.49 


4.47 


.65 


West side 15-46, S. 2, T. 6 N., R. 35 E., Walla Walla, Wash. 


6676 


17.50 


3.07 


.54 


Northwest corner 3-40, S. 12, T. 6 N., R. 35 E., Walla Walla, Wash. 


6677 


14.78 


4.33 


.64 


East side 10-40, S. 27, T. 7 N.. R. 35 E., Walla Walla, Wash. 


6682 


49.64 


1.25 


.62 


Sec. 28, T. 7 N., R. 34 E., north side, Walla Walla, Wash. 



124 



Appendix G. 
LIST OF PATENTS FOR THE EXTRACTION OF POTASH SALTS. 



No. 



Patent. 



8,308 

16,111 

1,697 
216, 483 
446,267 
513,001 

641, 406 

772, 206 

772, 612\ 
772,657/ 
789,074 

847, 856 

851, 922 
862, 676 

869,011 

896, 168 
910,662 
912,266 

957,295 



959,841 

987, 436 
995, 105 
997,671 



E. L. Seymour 

Chas. Bickell 

Jacob Osborn 

J. and R. H. Woodrum 

Bernard Peitzsch 

H. S. Blackmooro 

J. G. Rhodin 

H. S. Blackmoorc 

W. T. Gibbs 

A. J. Swayze 

W. E. Wadman 

A. S. Cushman 

A. J. Swayze , 

R. H. McKee 

Sylvester Sparlin T 

W.T. Gibbs 

A. C. Spencer and E . C. Eckel 

Augusto Alberti 



F. R. Carpenter. . . 

A. S. Cushman 

Firman Thompson 
Edward Hart 



Proposed treatment of feldspathic rocks with sulphur dioxide, 
air, and steam. 

Heats 1 part of feldspar, £ part of calcium phosphate, and 3 or 4 
parts of lime. Ground mass is applied directly as fertilizer. 

Extraction of potash from wood ashes. 

Extraction of potash salts from ashes. 

Separation of potash salts from kainit and similar minerals. 

Heats feldspar, calcium chloride, and lime to 1,100° C. in a sealed 
furnace. 

Feldspar heated with lime or calcium carbonate and salt. The 
powdered mass is treated with acid. 

A dried, powdered potash silicate is mixed with water and sub- 
jected to the action of carbon dioxide at 500 pounds pressure. 
Alkaline bicarbonates are obtained. 

{Treats silicates with hydrofluosilicic acid. Potassium fluosili- 
cate formed. This is mixed with sulphuric acid to give potas- 
sium sulphate and hydrofluosilicic acid. 

Heats silicates with calcium sulphate and a reducing agent such 
as coal. The potash salts are volatilized. 

Heats lepidolite with potassium sulphate. On lixiviating, 
lithium sulphate and part of the potassium sulphate go into 
solution. The residue is decomposed by sulphuric acid. The 
potash in the mineral and also that added is thus recovered. 

Electrolytic cndosmosis, in the presence of water, or dilute 
hydrofluoric acid. 

Heats silicates with potassium hydroxide solution. The latter 
extracts the silica, alumina, and potash as potassium silicate 
and aluminate. 

Heats potash-bearing minerals containing mica with lime and 
salt. 

Chars sagebrush and lixiviates with water. 

Heats silicates with alkaline earth hydrates under pressure. 

Greensand or similar rock is heated with lime or dolomite. The 
potash volatilizes. The residue is used as a cement. 

Recovery from wine lees, crude cream of tartar, etc. The treat- 
ment is with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid giving free tartaric 
acid and the potassium salt. Lime is added and calcium 
tartrate precipitated. Hypochlorous acid is used to oxidize 
organic matter in the filtrate. 

Heats potash-bearing rocks to a high temperature and then 
suddenly chills them. They are thus made amorphous, and 
the claim is made that after grinding the potash is soluble in 
acids. 

Heats finely ground feldspar and calcium chloride with or with- 
out lime. The potassium salts are obtained by volatilization 
or leaching, or by both. 

Feldspar, acid sodium sulphate, and sodium chloride are heated 
together. The products are potassium chloride, sodium sul- 
phate, and hydrogen chloride. 

Fuses orthoclase with barium sulphate and coal. The fused 
mass is decomposed by a mineral acid, yielding a residue which 
may be used as a pigment. 



125 



Appendix H. 
MEMORANDUM IN RE SALINE CLAIMS, POTASH DEPOSITS, ETC. 



United States Department of Agriculture, 

Bureau of Soils, 
September %5, 1911. 
Dear Sir: We would appreciate it very much if you would have 
prepared for us a brief summary of the United States laws con- 
trolling the filing of saline claims. This summary should describe 
the size and number of permitted filings, the means of classification 
of the lands, the amount of required assessment work, the time within 
which it must be done, and any similar matters which control the 
obtaining of patents. 

This information is required in connection with our investigation 
of possible potash deposits in the United States. 
Yours, very truly, 

A. G. Rice, Chief Clerk. 
Geo. P. McCabe, 

/Solicitor Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 



[Memorandum for the chief clerk Bureau of Soils.] 

Office of the Solicitor, 
United States Department of Agriculture, 

September %8, 1911. 
I am in receipt of your letter of September 25, 1911, requesting a 
brief summary of the United States laws relating to saline claims. 
You state that such information is required in connection with your 
investigations of possible potash deposits of the United States. 

The statute authorizing the filing of what are commonly known 
as saline claims, viz, the act of January 31, 1901 (30 Stats., 745), 
reads as follows: 

That all unoccupied public lands of the United States containing salt springs 
or deposits of salt in any form, and chiefly valuable therefor, are hereby declared 
to be subject to location and purchase under the provisions of the law relating 
to placer-mining claims : Provided, That the same person shall not locate or 
enter more than one claim hereunder. 

You will note that the location and purchase of saline lands of 
the character described are controlled by the provisions of the law 
relating to placer-mining claims, except that in the case of the former 
the right of location and patent is restricted to one claim of 20 acres 
for each person. The Secretary of the Interior holds (35 L. D., 
p. 1) that the act of January 31, 1901, supra, applies only to common 
126 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 127 

salt (sodium chloride), and would thus not govern the disposal of 
public lands valuable for their deposits of potash. I am of the 
opinion that public lands valuable for their potash deposits may be 
located and purchased under the placer-mining laws, the same as 
any other lands valuable for their placer deposits, without being sub- 
ject to the restrictions as to the number of claims that may be taken 
up by each person which is imposed in the case of so-called saline 
claims, under the act of January 31, 1901. 

For your information I append a copy of the General Land Office 
circular of March 29, 1909, embodying the United States mining 
laws, and regulations thereunder. Your attention is called to the 
specific portions of the circular relating to placer claims. I also 
have prepared below, for your convenience, a brief outline of the 
principal steps to be taken in consecutive order, in the acquisition of 
claims under the placer-mining laws. 

PLACER CLAIMS. 
PRELIMINARY. 

1. Lands subject. — Public mineral lands of the United States in 
the following States, Territories, and District of Alaska, containing 
any form of valuable mineral deposit, except veins of quartz or 
other rock in place : Arizona, California, Colorado, Idaho, Montana, 
Nevada, New Mexico, North and South Dakota, Oregon, Utah, Wash- 
ington, and Wyoming. 

2. Size and form. — May be taken in units of 10-acre tracts, being 
subdivisions of 40-acre legal subdivisions. Single claim may not 
exceed 20 acres for any one person or corporation, or if taken by an 
association may not exceed 20 acres to each individual in the asso- 
ciation, or 160 acres to the entire association. 

3. By whom— Ma,y be located and entered by citizens of the 
United States (including corporations chartered therein) or by 
persons who have declared their intention to become such. 

MODE OF ACQUISITION. 

1. Discovery. — There must be such a discovery of mineral on the 
land as will show that it has a special value for the deposit claimed. 

2. Location. — (a) Posting location notice in a conspicuous place 
on the claim. 

(b) Staking claim, which must be distinctly marked on the ground 
so that its boundaries can be readily traced. 

(c) Recording in the place provided by law of the location cer- 
tificate, which must contain the name or names of the locators, date 
of location, and such description of the claim or claims located by 
reference to some natural object or permanent monument as will 
identify the claim. 

Note. — Provisions of State law should be strictly followed in 
locating the claim. 

3. Annual labor or assessment. — Not less than $100 worth of labor 
shall be performed or improvements made during each year, but the 
periods within which such work is required to be done does not com- 
mence until the 1st day of January succeeding the date of location 
of the claim. 



128 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

4. Statutory expenditure. — At least $500 worth of labor must have 
been expended or improvements made upon the claim by the claimant 
or his grantors before entry or patent will be allowed. 

5. Request for survey of claim, addressed to United States surveyor 
general for proper district. 

6. Survey of claim under authority of surveyor general. 

7. Posting of notice of intention to apply for patent, together 
with plat of official survey, in a conspicuous place on the claim. 

8. Application for patent must be filed in local land office, with 
necessary accompanying papers, including proof by affidavit of two 
witnesses of posting of aforesaid notice; copy of approved plat and 
field notes of survey; abstract of title; certified copy of original lo- 
cation notice ; affidavit of citizenship ; agreement of publisher ; notice 
for publication, etc. 

9. Publication of notice of intention to apply for patent and post- 
ing of copy of same in local land office. — Notice of intention to apply 
for patent must be published in newspaper published nearest the 
claim and designated by register and receiver for 61 days if a 
daily paper or nine consecutive weeks if a weekly. 

10. Application to purchase. — Filed in local land office, with neces- 
sary accompanying papers, including proof of publication of notice, 
proof of $500 expenditure, etc. 

11. Payment of purchase price, $2.50 for each acre or fraction 
thereof. 

12. Entry. 

13. Patent. 

I have not considered it necessary here to give a complete enumera- 
tion of the papers required to accompany the application for patent 
and application for purchase, but you will find the same covered 
by the appended circular of the General Land Office. If there are 
any other points relating to placer mining claims on which you 
desire to be informed, I shall be glad to advise you upon your 
request. 

Respectfully, H. J. Fegan, 

Acting Solicitor. 



Appendix I. 
MEMORANDUM IN RE JURISDICTION OVER KELP GROVES. 



United States Department of Agriculture, 

Bureau or Soils, 

October 5, 1911. 
Dear Sir: In accordance with the investigation which we are 
making of the fertilizer resources of the country, with special refer- 
ence to the possibility of utilizing kelp beds as a source of potash, 
the question has arisen as to the jurisdiction over these beds and 
what parties are entitled to cut them. Some of the beds lie outside 
the nautical league limit, but many of them, including the more 
important ones, are within this limit. These beds all grow either 
in strong tideways or on the exposed coast, where there is a heavy 
swell. 

The cutting of these beds in a small way has already commenced 
on the Pacific coast, and the question as to whether the jurisdiction 
over these kelp beds lies with the National Government or with the 
State authorities is already one of practical importance, and it is 
of considerable moment that we be advised in this matter before 
planning or carrying on further investigations in this direction. 
Yours, very truly, 

R. F. Cummings, 
Acting Chief Clerk. 
Solicitor, Department of Agriculture, 

Washington, D. C. 



[Memorandum.] 

United States Department of Agriculture, 

Office of the Solicitor. 

October 12, 1911. 
Sir: I have Mr. Cummings's letter of the 5th instant asking to 
be advised as to whether the jurisdiction of kelp beds along the 
coast, both within and outside the 3-mile limit, is within the State 
or the Federal Government. 

Jurisdiction over the shores of the sea below the line of high tide 
and for a distance of 1 marine league or 3 geographical miles out 
to sea from the line of low water is wholly within the respective 
States, subject to the paramount right of the Federal Government 
to regulate commerce and navigation, while the sea beyond the 
3-mile limit is open to all the nations. Bays whose headlands are 
not more than 6 miles apart, measuring from low water, are subject 
to the same extent to the jurisdiction of the State within which 
they lie. The right to regulate the taking of kelp within the limits 
above described is therefore within the several States, while neither 
the State nor the Federal Government has any control over the 
water beyond that limit. 
Very respectfully, 

Geo. M. McCabe, Solicitor. 
Chief of Bureau of Soils, 

Department of Agriculture. 
20827°— S. Doc. 190, 62-2 9 129 



Appendix K. 
THE KELPS OF THE UNITED STATES AND ALASKA. 



The kelps or oarweeds, in popular language, are the members of 
the botanical family Laminariaceae and belong to the algae or sea- 
weeds of the Phaeophyceae or brown group. In general they are 
large, brown or olive-green seaweeds, of complex structure, more or 
less tough or leathery, having a more or less stout stalk or stipe, 
simple or branched, surmounted by a fairly long flattened blade (or 
blades), with the region whence growth in length proceeds situated 
between the stipe and blade, and bearing the organs of fructification 
in broad, dark, flattened and thickened cloudlike patches (usually 
on the blade). 

The first distinguishing mark of a kelp is that it is brown. This 
means that the color when fresh is typically of a lighter or darker 
brown (as distinguished from blue, green, or red), or it may be 
either so brown as to be almost black, or so light as to be simply 
olive-green. This color is due here, as in all other brown algae or 
seaweeds, to the presence of a brown pigment, called Phycophaein, 
in addition to the green pigment or chlorophyll. Phycophaein is 
slightly soluble in water, but is more completely soluble in dilute 
alcohol, while chlorophyll is only soluble in strong alcohol. 

The kelps are all complex, i. e., they are solid structures made up 
of several distinct tissues or collections of cells. The central or 
medullary tissues are made up, as a rule, of elongated — often tubu- 
lar — cells, and have for their function the conduction of substances 
manufactured and distributed from the outer tissues. They are 
destitute of assimilating cell organs, the chromatophores or chloro- 
phyll granules. The outermost layers are composed of small cells, 
nearly isodiametric, which contain the chromatophores and are con- 
sequently the assimilating tissues. The intermediate tissue or tis- 
sues — the mechanical — are more or less complex, according to the 
size of the plant or the part concerned, consisting of cells from those 
nearly isodiametric to those decidedly elongated vertically. They 
(or only the outermost ones in the complex structures) also take 
more or less part in assimilation. 

The typical kelps (i. e., all except a few aberrant- forms) have at 
least three sets of organs, viz, holdfast, stipe (or stalk), and lamina 
(or blade). In the great majority these three organs are well de- 
veloped, and in some of the higher forms the stipe and lamina may 
become very complex. 

The holdfast may be either discoid and solid or branching. Few 
forms have the discoid holdfast. The majority of species have 
more or less dichotomous hapteres (or branches), given off irregu- 
larly or in more or less distinct whorls from the very base of the 
" 130 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 131 

stipe. In either case, the disk or the tips of the hapteres apply 
themselves to rocks, stones, or other large algae, to which they ad- 
here tightly, through mucilaginous modification of the walls of the 
cells of the contact surfaces. They are then to be wrenched free 
only with difficulty. The holdfast in one case {Saccorhiza bulbosa) 
is a large bulblike organ with many whorls of hapteres, and reaches 
a diameter of several inches to a foot. The holdfast of the long kelp 
of the Pacific and Antarctic Oceans is a branched affair, often more 
than a foot in every diameter. Some kelps (e. g., Laminaria rodri- 
quezii, L. sinclairii, Dictyoneuron californicum, Macrocystis, etc.) 
have prostrate rhizomes of greater or less length, which give off 
hapteres and form new fronds. 

The stalk or stipe may be longer or shorter, vanishing at times in 
the adult stage, cylindrical or flattened, and simple or branched. 
Very few kelps lack the stipe in the adult stage, but all have it dis- 
tinct in the younger stages. In some of our Pacific coast forms the 
stipe may reach a length of one to two (?) hundred feet. In a few 
kelps also {Saccorhiza bulbosa and species of Undaria) the stipe be- 
comes very much flattened, winged, and furbelowed. The stipe in- 
creases in length at its summit. 

At the summit of the stipe (or of its branches) is situated the blade 
(or blades). These are longer or shorter, broader or narrower, en- 
tire or split, plane, ruffled, ribbed, plicate, or perforated. In fact, 
there is the greatest variety of outline and marking to be found. 
The stipe expands above into the blade, which wears away at its 
tip and is renewed at its base. Thus the meristem for increase in 
length of both stipe and blade is situated at the transition place 
where one passes into the other. Whatever the markings or other 
modifications of the blade may be, the base is usually plane. How- 
ever, in two species {Agarum turneri and Thalassiophyllum clathrus) 
the blade unrolls at the base from two scrolls, and in another genus 
{Arthrothamnus) the base of the blade has two prominent auricles. 
The members of one tribe (Ecklonieae) have the base of blade deeply 
lobed. In some cases {Hedophyllum subsessile, H. spiralis, Arthro- 
thamnus, and Eisenia) the bases of the blade thicken, the central 
portion of the blade wears away, the thickened bases increase in 
length, separating the margins which appear then as separate blades, 
while the thickened bases of the blade appear as if branches of the 
stipe. 

Outside of the various ruffles, ribs, folds, perforations, etc., which 
give variety to the appearance and structure of the blade, the blade, 
as well as stipe, may be increased in complexity in two ways, viz, 
by splitting and by outgrowths. Both of these have their beginning 
at the transition place and affect both stipe and blade equally or 
only the one or the other. Further details of these will be given un- 
der the proper subfamilies (Lessonioideae, Lessoniopsoideae, and 

A.lftF101Q©£l6 ) • 

The fructification of the various members of the kelp family, or 
Laminariaceae is comparatively of very simple structure. To the 
naked eye it is seen to form more or less extended patches, or son, 
on the surface. The sori are usually more or less irregular m out- 
line, and are, as a rule, of a color darker than the adjacent portions 
of the plant and slightly elevated. In the majority of species, the 
sori are situated upon one or both surfaces of the blade, extending 



132 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

at times over its whole surface, at times forming definite spots, or 
in a few cases (Postelsia and some forms (?) of Macrocystis) 
being restricted to lining the longitudinal furrows of the blade. In 
some species the sori are restricted to specialized leaflets (e. g., in 
the Alarioideae) or sporophylls. In two cases (Saccorhiza buTbosa 
and Undaria (?■)) the sori occur on the "furbelows" of the stipe. 

In all cases the sorus is made up of two sets of elongated ele- 
ments — unilocular zoosporangia and unicellular paraphyses — closely 
packed together in a palisadelike fashion, with their long axes per- 
pendicular to the surface on which they are borne. They are cov- 
ered by a thin but dense transparent membrane, the cuticula, which 
separates at maturity and falls off. The zoosporangia are elon- 
gated, more or less clavate cells, whose contents are deep brown in 
color and divide to form a considerable number of zoospores. The 
paraphyses are elongated, generally slender cells, whose contents 
are deep brown and whose tips, in the great majority of species of 
the family, are topped by a thick, hyaline, cuticular appendage. A 
few genera have paraphyses which lack this. 

The Laminariaceae, or kelp family, then, is a family of the 
Phaeophyceae, or brown algae, whose plant body is differentiated 
into holdfast, stipe, and blade, of solid structure, having the pri- 
mary region of growth in length intercalated between stipe and 
blade, and with unilocular zoosporangia and unicellular paraphyses 
compacted into extended patches or sori. 

Concerning the earliest stages in the development of the Lami- 
nariaceae, there is very insufficient information of any certain nature. 
It has been held probable that the unilocular sporangia among the 
Phaeophyceae, or brown algae, give rise to zoospores, i. e., the small 
bodies emerging from them, bearing two laterally attached flagella, 
germinate without fusing. It is fairly certain that they do thus 
germinate. Many years ago Areschoug (1875, 14, 15) noticed 
that while some zoospores of Chorda tomentosa germinated singly, 
others, situated in pairs, put out tubes toward one another which 
touched (1875, p. 15, pi. 1, f. 10 and 11). Areschoug did not think 
that this represented a sexual act such as he had observed in the case 
of Dictyosiphon hippuroides (loc. cit., p. 27, pi. 3, f . 7-12) , which, in 
turn, possesses only the unilocular type of reproductive organ. The 
observations of Thuret (1851, pis. 29 and 30) indicate that for 
Chorda fllum, Laminaria saccharina, and "Haligenia bulbosa" the 
"zoospores" germinate without fusing. Lately, however, Drew 
(1910, p. 184, etc.) claims to have observed conjugation in Lami- 
naria digitata and L. saccharina. As a consequence, he calls the 
unilocular bodies " gametangia," and, because of certain peculiari- 
ties in germination, the cells immediately arising from them " sporo- 
phytes." From these cells arise singly the plants which develop 
into the typical Laminaria plants, which are called gametophytes. 
The whole matter seems to need confirmation, and there seems to be 
no warrant, morphological or cytological, for the application of the 
terms sporophyte and gametophyte. It seems best still to call the 
"unilocular sporangia" by that name awaiting further investiga- 
tion. The later stages, as figured by Drew (loc. cit.), are hardly 
so convincing as those so beautifully figured by Thuret (loc. cit.) 
for "Haligenia bulbosa" and equally so by ^endo for Costaria 
(1911, PI. LIII, 1 1-10), who also described them. Although the 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 133 

chain is not as yet complete, it seems that the Laminariaceae first 
form a longer or shorter filament of cells, which soon begins to 
divide so as to form a simple membrane, and this passes over grad- 
ually into a solid flattened structure above with the cylindrical stipe 
forming below. These stages, in more or less completeness, have 
now been described by several writers, and there is some agreement 
to call these earlier stages up to the formation of the simple lami- 
narioid frond the embryonal stages. 

Just where we are to draw the line between the embryonal stages 
and the later postembryonal stages may be difficult, especially in the 
simpler genera, but in complex genera there is less difficulty. The 
various midribs, etc., may appear early and be reckoned as belonging 
to the embryonal stages, and other modifications may also appear, 
but after the frond is fairly well formed, with blade, stipe, and hold- 
fast differentiated, there are secondary changes, more ribs, bullose 
swellings, thickenings of the blade and stipe, etc., which are dis- 
tinctly postembryonal, and in the species whose fronds become com- 
plex by splitting or outgrowths these changes may well be placed 
among the postembryonal stages. 

Beginning thus, with a simple Laminarioid plant which may show 
some differentiation, all the members of Laminariaceae, recapitulat- 
ing their phylogeny (cf. Griggs, 1909), proceed to differentiate into 
their various adult conditions, the process varying in detail and com- 
plexity according to the species. There are, however, three, or per- 
haps more properly four, main lines of differentiation, viz, those of 
the subfamilies, and under each, few to several minor lines, those 
of the tribes, with generic and specific modifications under these. 
It may be well, then, to pass to a review of the various subfamilies, 
in order to make clear the adult morphology as well as the post- 
embryonal stages. 

In looking over the Laminariaceae we find that, in spite of its com- 
pactness, there are at least three, probably four, fundamental types 
of adult structure: 

(1) The simple or Laminarioid type. In this type the stipe is 
not branched, nor does the blade become compound by any process 
of splitting or outgrowth. Certain complexities do arise in a few 
forms, but no such definite methods exist as in the other two types 
for increase in complexity. 

(2) Both blade and stipe become compound by a splitting process, 
which takes place in the primary meristem or growing region at the 
transition place between stipe and blade. In this way a few to a 
many branched stipe arises, the ultimate branches each surmounted 
by a leaf. 

(3) From the transition place there grow out smaller blades, 
which may be mostly on the side of the blade or mostly on the side 
of the stipe, or on both. 

(4) When one of these sources of complexity exists the other is 
not present, but there is one kelp (Lessoniopsis) in which it has 
recently been discovered that both exist side by side. 

In the classification to be adopted in this account, members of the 
family Laminariaceae belonging to the first type will be placed in 
the subfamily Laminarioideae ; those of the second type in the sub- 
family Lessonioideae ; those of the third type in the subfamily 
Alarioideae; while the plant of the fourth type will be placed in a 



134 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

subfamily if its own, to be called Lessoniopsoideae. Each of these 
subfamilies, with the exception of the last, will be divided into two 
or more tribes, to further segregate the genera. All the mem- 
bers of these subfamilies and tribes have their peculiar postembry- 
onal stages, which will be considered later in the proper places in the 
systematic account. 

CONDITIONS OF LIFE. 

Relation of bathymetric zones. — The kelps grow from just below 
high- water mark down into depths of perhaps 200 meters or more, 
the majority of species growing either just above or just below ex- 
treme low-water mark. The temperature and conditions of the 
moisture in the atmosphere undoubtedly have their effect on the vari- 
ous species, especially those inhabiting the littoral zone (taken as the 
region between the highest high and lowest low water marks). 

Only a very few kelps grow high up in the littoral zone, unless in 
tide pools — e. g., Laminaria sinclairii on the coast of California, 
Hedophyllum sessile from the northern coast of California north to 
Puget Sound, and in Alaska Alaria lanceolata and Hedophyllum 
subsessile. Postelsia palmaeformis and Lessoniopsis Utoralis grow 
even higher up where the waves dash high. The majority of kelps 
grow just at the lower limits of the littoral zone or in the first few 
meters of depth below it, in the sublittoral zone. Some kelps live in 
30 to 40 meters of water, attached to stones, and send their stipes 
and blades toward or even up to the surface, bouyed up by bladders 
of various sizes and number. Such are, e. g., Macrocystis, Nereo- 
cystis, Pelagophycus, Egregia, and Alaria fistulosa. In favorable 
localities kelps are reported as growing at depths of from 100 meters 
to 150 meters. 

D. C. Eaton mentions (1873, p. 343) that, at Easport, Me., the 
dredge brought up a specimen of Haligenia dermatodea, with the 
stipe freshly cut, from a depth of 25 fathoms (50 meters) and the 
lobster fishers of the eastern end of Long Island Sound claim that 
they find lobsters among kelps in "The Race" at a depth of 100 
fathoms (200 meters )and over. The usual depth, however, does not 
probably much exceed 30 to 40 meters, except possibly where the 
water is unusually clear. Laminaria rodriquezii, e. g., was found by 
Rodriques at a depth of 105 to 150 meters (cf. Bornet, 1888, p. 364), 
and it seems to be confined to these depths. Kjellman says (1883, p. 
10) that the elittoral zone of the Arctic Sea is, for the most part, 
destitute of algae, and it seems that he found Laminariaceae at no 
greater depth than 10 fathoms (20 meters). Dickie (1853) found 
Agarum costata at 10 to 100 fathoms (20 to 200 meters) and Lamina- 
ria ("Z. saccharina") at 50 to 100 fathoms (100 to 200 meters) in 
Baffin Bay. On the Alaskan coast I have seen Nereocystis growing 
in 12 fathoms of water (cf. Setchell, 1908, p. 126). 

Relation of substratum. — The Laminariaceae, like other fixed al- 
gae, depend upon a firm foothold, and are found affixed to rocks, 
stones, shells, wood, iron, and to other large algae. In the littoral 
and upper sublittoral zones, where they are exposed to the pounding 
and wrenching effects of the waves, they are attached to rocks or large 
stones firmly fixed, or to the piles and other timbers of wharves. A 
favorite habitat of some kelps are buoys, either the wooden or the 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE "UNITED STATES. 135 

painted iron buoys. In the deeper water, even large kelps like the 
Nereocystis, Microcystis, and Pelagophycus are attached to com- 
paratively small stones or shells firmly fixed in the mud. In the 
littoral zone, some kelps, notably Laminaria stenophylla find a firm 
attachment on mussels (Mytilus edidis, etc.) in exposed situations. 
The Laminariaceae are less often epiphytic, but Nereocystis, e. g., is 
often found growing on Pterygophora and the Laminariae of the 
New England coast, are sometimes found, especially in juvenile 
stages, growing on slender but tough algae like Desmarestia aculeata. 
While some of the kelps, like Macrocystis, Pelagophycus, Nereocys- 
tis, Alaria fistulosa, etc., float for long distances, they make no 
growth except when attached and ultimately perish when torn from 
their substrata. 

The nature of the shore exposed by low tides and the nature of 
the bottom is one of the important factors in determining the pres- 
ence or absence of algae in general, and of the Laminariaceae in par- 
ticular. The Laminariaceae need a strong or rocky bottom where 
the rocks are solid and not disintegrating, or the stones fixed firmly 
in the clay. On sandy or muddy shores or bottom, as well as on 
those composed of shales or other disintegrating rocks, indeed, even 
on gravelly and shelly bottoms where other algae may abound, no 
growth of the Laminariaceae is to be expected. On the other hand, 
the rocky and stony shores and bottoms of the temperate and frigid 
waters, where other physical conditions are at all favorable, a lux- 
uriant growth of Laminariaceae may be expected. This is especially 
true of the colder waters. 

Relation of salinity of the water. — Exact figures are wanting to 
enable a discussion of the influence of the varying salinity of the 
water to be carried on satisfactorily. Recourse can be made only 
to general experience, and statements can be couched only in general 
terms. In general, it may be said that the Laminariaceae do not 
inhabit brackish water. A few, indeed, do ascend tidal rivers to a 
slight extent, but not nearly so far as do the Fucaceae or the Ul- 
vaceae. The Laminariaceae are found in greatest abundance and 
luxuriance where the water is purest, i. e., in the ocean and larger 
bodies of water and away from the localities where large volumes 
of fresh waters are discharged. In looking for large bodies of kelps, 
then, it will be necessary to examine those stretches of coast where 
the salinity of the water is not likely to be lowered by the discharge 
of fresh water from large rivers. 

Relation of temperature. — The members of the Laminariaceae are to 
be found only in the temperate and colder waters. They are absent 
from the strictly tropical waters, i. e., waters having a temperature 
of 25° C. and over. In waters somewhat below 25° C., down to 0° C. 
and even to — 2° C, kelps are found ; and while a few species range 
through all the degrees, most kelps are more or less narrowly re- 
stricted in their temperature limits. Some years ago (cf. Setchell, 
1893) I showed this to be the case, and the results I presented have 
been little changed by the progress of our knowledge since that time. 
In that paper I attempted to show the different regions or centers 
of the distribution of the Laminariaceae and brought out the fact, 
although not emphatically, that they vary from one another either 
in geographical isolation or in temperature. I also showed that the 



136 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

different tribes of the Laminariaceae affect different temperatures to 
a certain extent. The differences in temperature may be seen from 
that discussion to amount to 5° C. in the important cases. To illus- 
trate, there are on the eastern coast of North America three separate 
regions so far as Laminariaceae (and other algae as well) are con- 
cerned, viz, the Baffin Bay region, which extends somewhat south- 
ward along the Labrador coast; the southern coasts of Labrador; 
the coasts of New England, down as far as Cape Cod; and, finally, 
the southern coasts of New England, and even those of New Jersey. 
The maximum summer temperature of the two uppermost regions 
varies from 0° C. to 20° C, and that of the lowermost from 20° C. 
to 25° C. Each has its own assemblage of kelps, and there are some 
indications of a subdivision in the case of the middle division. Even 
more distinct are the conditions of temperature limiting the distribu- 
tion of algae, including the Laminariaceae, on the Pacific coasts of 
North America. From Bering Strait down to Magdalena Bay in 
lower California there is to be found an abundant kelp-flora. This 
flora may be divided into four distinct assemblages: (1) That of the 
Bering Sea region; (2) that of the Alaskan coast to, and including, 
Puget Sound, i. e., down as far as Cape Flattery; (3) that extending 
from Cape Flattery on the coast of Washington to Point Concepcion 
on the coast of California; and (4) that of the coasts south of Point 
Conception to, an including, Magdalena Bay. Below Magdalena 
Bay there are no Laminariaceae on the coast of North America (cf. 
Setchell and Gardner, 1903, pp. 167-171 \. It has seemed best to 
speak of these regions as the upper boreal, the lower boreal, the north 
temperate, and the north subtropical regions (Setchell and Gardner, 
loc. cit.). These regions differ from one another by 5° C. of tem- 
perature. The surface waters of the upper boreal range from 0° to 
10° C, the lower boreal from 10° to 15° C, the north temperate 
from 15° to 20° C, and the north subtropical from 20° to 25° C. 
The upper boreal region (Bering and Ochotsk Seas) has such Lami- 
nariaceae as Laminaria longipes, Thalassiophyllum clathrus, Lesso- 
nia, Laminariaeoides, Arthrothamnus bifldus, Hedophyllum subses- 
sile, H. spirale, and probably some others. It has not been at all 
thoroughly explored, but lacks most of the species of the lower 
boreal, including such conspicuous plants as Microcystis and Ne- 
reocystis, which are abundant in the lower boreal region. It has 
Agarum costata, a species of the eastern coast. The lower boreal has 
a most abundant kelp-flora, with some Arctic and North Atlantic 
species, such as Laminaria saccharina in several forms and Alaria 
dolichorhachis. It has peculiar species, such as Cymathaere tripli- 
cata, Pleurophycus gardneri, Agarum fimbriatum, Laminaria bullata, 
and Hedophyllum sessile. In the Puget Sound region, as used in the 
larger sense, there is a mingling of colder and warmer waters and 
a consequent mingling of the floras of the lower boreal and the north 
temperate. It is a very rich algal flora. Here are found most of the 
characteristic lower boreal forms and such north temperate kelps 
as Laminaria ephemera, Postelsia, Dictyoneuron, Egregia memiesii, 
Pterygophora, and Lessoniopsis. In the north temperate there are 
the species just mentioned and Macrocystis, Nereocystis, Laminaria 
sinclairii, L. farlowii, and L. andersonii. There are fewer species of 
Alaria, and the Atlantic and Arctic species, Laminaria saccharina 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 137 

and Alaria dolichorhachis, are absent. There is a belt of cold water 
on the northern Californian coast, and here Hedophyllum sessile, 
characteristic of the lower boreal, reappears at a congenial tempera- 
ture. The north subtropical region lacks in ordinary waters all 
species of the north temperate region, so far as the Laminariaceae 
are concerned, except Laminaria farlowii and Macrocystis. It has, 
however, at particular points, whose depths are washed by a sub- 
marine cold current, Agarum fimbriatum of the lower boreal and 
Pterygophora califomica of the Puget Sound and north temperate 
regions. As characteristic species for this lowest region are Pela- 
gophycus porra, Eisenia arborea, and Egregia laevigata. 

Macrocystis pyrifera has the longest range on our western coasts, 
and through the most degrees of surface temperature, of any kelp. 
It extends from Lower California to beyond Sitka, in Alaska, and 
from 25° C. down to 10° C, a range of 15°. Why it does not pass 
into water of 5° C. is a mystery, since at Cape Horn and the Falk- 
land Islands what appears to be the same species abounds in water 
entirely below the isotherm of 10° C. Some of the Laminariaceae 
range through 10° C, but most of them seem to be restricted to 
waters whose variation is within 5° C, or nearly so. This seems 
to be general among algae. 

From what has been detailed above, it seems that in the shores of 
the oceans, apart from localities affected by particular conditions 
otherwise, the temperature of the water is the controlling factor in 
deciding and limiting the distribution of the Laminariaceae. 

Relations of light. — The Laminariaceae, being chlorophyll-possess- 
ing plants, need light. This is probably the most important factor 
in determining their distribution in depth. In perfectly clear water 
the kelps can grow deeper than in water which is turbid, because of 
the greater penetration of the light. There is a noticeable decrease 
in the intensity of the color in kelps which grow in shallow water. 
They are a light brown and often decidedly yellowish. 

Relations to air. — It may be said that kelps usually grow in 
water which is in motion. This is particularly true for the kelps of 
the littoral zone. So far as I know, the kelps which grow on the 
rocky shores and tide pools in the littoral zone are all to be found on 
such stretches as are exposed to the full force of the waves and are 
constantly bathed in water which is churned up with air. Conse- 
quently they come into contact with the dissolved gases from the 
atmosphere as well, as the water in which the air exists is in a state 
of active effervescence. Plants occupying such a habitat are known 
as surf plants, or cumaphytes. (Cf. MacMillan, 1899, p. 279.) There 
is every gradation among these cumaphytes from those preferring 
the most violent surf to those sheltering themselves from all but 
its gentlest influence. Postelsia and Lessoniopsis, for example, grow 
on the most exposed point and at or only just below high- water 
mark, where they receive the full force and " boil " of the strongest 
waves. Laminaria sinclairii and some Alariae grow at about mid- 
tide area, where the waves, while strong, are much less so than in the 
first instance. Hedophyllum sessile, which also grows high up in 
the littoral zone, nevertheless inhabits more sheltered nooks. The 
majority of the "shore" kelps live in the lower portions of the littoral 
or the upper regions of the sublittoral, where they receive much ben- 



138 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

efit from the aerated waters without being subject to the full severity 
of the pounding, or even the wrenching forces of the waves. The 
kelps of the upper and also of the lower sublittoral zone grow where 
there are currents of water, in tideways, or exposed to shore currents, 
and even the inhabitants of the deeper waters grow where they may 
benefit from constant movements of the water and not far from shore. 
Macrocystis, Nereocystis, and Pelagophycus, even, will not grow 
in quiet waters, and if their accustomed haunts are shut off from full 
influence of the " swells," they perish and are not renewed. Such 
was the case at San Pedro, in southern California, when a break- 
water was constructed to protect the harbor. The Macrocystis and 
Pelagophycus disappeared from the area protected and have never 
grown again. Constant motion is a necessity in the growth of the 
Laminariaceae, as Drew (1910, p.. 180) found when he attempted to 
grow them in aquaria. He did not succeed until he devised appa- 
ratus for keeping his young plants in motion. Chorda and Lami- 
naria saccharina need as little motion as any of the Laminariaceae, 
but even they need some. 

Floating forms. — When the majority of the species of the Lami- 
nariaceae are torn from their surroundings and tossed about by the 
waves or carried along by the currents, they gradually sink, being 
buoyed up to some extent by their expanded blades, but not indefi- 
nitely. Some forms, however, have hollow and inflated portions filled 
with gases, which buoy them up for long periods, and they float 
when torn away from their attachments. Such are Pelagophycus, 
Macrocystis, Nereocystis, Postelsia, Ecklonia buccinalis of the Cape 
of Good Hope, and Alaria fistulosa. These inflations are of advan- 
tage to the plant in buoying up the stem and the leaves, so that they 
may receive the full benefit of the light and of the aerated water. 
When the part torn away bears the sori, this buoyancy may also 
assist in the dissemination of the reproductive bodies. But in Ma- 
crocystis and Alaria the fruiting portions are not torn away with 
the buoyant part, so that this can not be the case in those genera. 

The floating kelps (or the buoyant portions of them) are often 
met by vessels floating in widespread masses, often many acres across, 
as well as singly. In crossing Bering Sea from St. Michaels to 
TJnalaska I have constantly seen, day after day, stems of Nereocystis 
closely packed together and by the acre. In Unimak Pass, in the 
eastern Aleutian Islands, I have seen the surface literally covered 
with the blades of Alaria fistulosa. In Wrangell Narrows, in south- 
eastern Alaska, I have seen great quantities of both species borne 
along by the current. The approach of land is heralded by these 
floating weeds. In the days of the Manila Galleon there was a sharp 
lookout kept at about the proper time on the eastward trip for the 
first Porra (floating Pelagophycus) ; and when it was discovered 
there was solemn mass said and much rejoicing aboard ship, and so 
regular was the appearance that the longitude was corrected by it 
and the ship's course was changed to the southward (cf. Setchell, 
1908, p. 130). 

Duration of life and seasons. — Comparatively little is known about 
the duration of life among the Laminariaceae. There are certainly 
annuals, and some of our largest species are among these, and some 
are perennials. In the case of the latter species we do not know 
whether their life continues for few or many years. The shortest 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 139 

lived Laminariae known to me are Laminaria saccharina f. Phyllitis 
and L. ephemera. The life of any individual of each of these species 
is probably of only a few months' duration (cf. Setchell, 1901, p. 122). 
This is similar to the ordinary annual plants of temperate zones. 
As annuals having a life of a full year or somewhat over perhaps are 
to be reckoned Laminaria longicruris, L. stenophylla, L. interme- 
dia (f), Costaria costata, C'ymathaere triplicate^ Postelsia palmae- 
formis, Nereocystis luetkeana, and Pelagophycus porra. Not all of 
these are certain, but some are, and the general appearance, disap- 
pearance, and reappearance seems to favor this view in the case of 
the others. The rest of the Laminariaceae seem to be perennial, but 
this matter still demands careful investigation. Some kelps have 
definite rings showing in the cross section of an older stipe; and 
while these rings are due to deposits of pigment rather than differ- 
ences of structure (as in Dicotyledonous woody perennials), there is a 
theory that they correspond to the annual rings of shrubs and trees 
among Exogens (cf. Ruprecht, 1848, p. 61). In the treelike Lessoniae 
of the Falkland Islands the resemblance in size and " rings " is so 
great that their trunks cast ashore resemble drift logs to such an 
extent that Hooker (1845, p. 152) states that they have been col- 
lected for fuel by those who did not realize their incombustible 
nature. Many of our stouter Laminariaceae show such " rings of 
growth," but no careful observation has as yet demonstrated their 
true nature. 

The sori are generally produced in late summer and autumn, ma- 
turing in winter. Young plants are found in winter and spring, as 
a rule, but sporadic " sporelings " are often found long " out of sea- 
son." At maturity, if annual, the whole plant seems to weaken and 
be readily torn away from its place of attachment, but if perennial 
only the sorus-bearing portion wears awaj' or disintegrates. 

This matter of the season of fructification and the manner of its 
production becomes one of importance in connection with any propo- 
sition to harvest extensively the existing growth. In Nereocystis 
and Pelagophycus, for example, the plant is annual and bears the 
sori on the blades, which are terminal. If the plant is removed at 
any stage prior to the discharge of the zoospores, it can not re- 
produce,* and if all the plants of a season were removed there would 
result extermination. However, as said above, sporadic sporelings 
appear at various seasons, so that absolute extermination is improb- 
able, or even great decrease of numbers. In Microcystis, the sori are 
situated, for the most part at any rate, on leaves low down on the 
plant toward the base, so that the greater portion of the upper part 
of the plant may be removed and still the plant grow. Being 
perennial, it will also regenerate from the basal portions and grow 
again, so that the harvesting of Macrocystis is likely to have little 
effect toward decrease or, particularly, extermination. Conditions 
of fruiting and regeneration in the Alaskan Alaria fistulosa, the 
fourth species of kelp on our coast growing gregariously in fairly 
deep water, are similar to those of Macrocystis, though differing in 
detail. The sori are on sporophylls, near the base of the plant, 
several fathoms deep, from which the long blade (up to 25 meters in 
length) rises and floats along the surface. 

The growth of kelps, so far as rate is concerned, has never been 
carefully and accurately determined. That it must be rapid appears 



140 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

certain from the growth made in one season by the annual kelps, 
such as Nereocystis (cf. Frye, 1906, p. 143, and Setchell, 1908, p. 
127) and Pelagophycus (cf. Setchell, loc. cit.) . That a kelp may make 
a growth of 45 meters or more in one season is certain, and that all 
kelps, even perennials, probably reach a fair proportion of their 
growth in four to six months, seems equally certain. Further study 
as to this matter for the sake of insuring exactness is very much 
needed. Macrocystis is one of the species needing careful study 
from this point of view, for in many places it forms a thick belt some 
distance from shore, which acts as a sort of breakwater and protects 
the adjacent shore from erosion. The entire removal of such pro- 
tection may be attended with unpleasant, perhaps seriously in- 
jurious, results. No data are at present before us for estimating 
how soon after the removal the upper portions may grow again. 

Regeneration. — There are several forms of regeneration to be 
found among the Laminariaceae. For convenience, the processes 
may be divided between physiological regeneration and restorative 
regeneration (cf. Setchell, 1905, p. 140 et seq.), and also the first 
may again be subdivided into continuous physiological regeneration 
and periodic plrysiological regeneration. 

All kelps have physiological regeneration of the blade to a greater 
or less degree. The blade disintegrates and is worn away above 
and is renewed at the base at the same time that the stipe is increas- 
ing in length at its upper end. This process is continuous during 
the season of growth and is comparable to the wearing away of the 
skin in animals and its constant renewal and to the wearing away 
or shedding of the bark of trees and shrubs and its constant 
replacement. 

Many perennial kelps show a noticeable periodic physiological 
regeneration, while others do not. In marked cases it is known as 
the renewal of the blade, the old blade appearing to be cast off by 
the new one. This happens after a period of rest, usually taking 
place in winter, when the renewed active growth, occurring in the 
springtime as a rule, causes the blade of the season to grow rap- 
idly. A noticeable constriction occurs at the base of the old blade, 
which is further to be distinguished from the new one by its texture, 
thickness, color, etc. It is most marked in the digitate species of 
Laminaria, such as L. hyperborea, L. andersonii, and related species, 
but is sometimes very noticeable in the species with undivided blades, 
e. g., in L. solidungula, L. rodriquezii, L. farlowii, and L. sinclairii. 
It has been seen also in Agarum and in species of Alaria. In in- 
vestigating the Laminariaceae of the Pacific coast of North America 
I have studied it in L. sinclairii, L. farlowii, and L. andersonii (cf. 
Setchell, 1905). In each of these cases I have found that this re- 
generation proceeds from the inner tissues only, the cortical tissues 
being ruptured at the transition place at the very beginning of the 
process. 

Restorative regeneration, both as to restitution and compensation, 
takes place in many kelps, and may take place in all, as seems likely, 
if the injury happens to an actively growing part or at the proper 
season. As a result, all sorts of abnormal forms result. When a 
longitudinal split passes through the transition place sufficiently 
early in the growing season a bifurcate form results. Such forms 
have often been described as varieties. Such forms are known in 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 141 

several of the digitate Laminariae, and these species are particu- 
larly susceptible to this form of injury. They split the meristematic 
tissues at the transition place into two distinct longitudinal regions, 
the wounded surfaces close more or less, and the ordinarily simple 
stipe becomes forked above, each fork carrying a separate blade, 
which soon becomes symmetrical, instead of one-sided, at the base. 
Postels and Ruprecht (1840, p. 10, PI. XIV) have described such 
a form of Laminaria bongardiana, and a similar form was evidently 
described as early as 1766 by Gunner and figured by him. Even 
more remarkable regenerations, after vertical splittings, have been 
seen in Alaria and Pterygophora, as described by me elsewhere 
(1905, pp. 149, 150). In these the wounded inner margins are so 
far regenerated as to produce sporophylls, thus completing the sym- 
metry of each half to a remarkable degree. Eisenia arborea fre- 
quently has one arm split and, consequently, forked. Nereocystis 
and Pelagophycus specimens are known with two bulbs, evidently 
resulting in the same fashion. Postelsia is known with lateral as 
well as terminal clusters of blades. Other sorts of mutilations than 
through vertical splitting seem less likely to be succeeded by regen- 
erative growth. A great variety, however, is to be found in Lami- 
naria sinclairii, where they have been carefully studied (cf. Setchell, 
1905). Transverse rupture of the stipe is followed by the growth of 
a new blade whose meristematic tissue is at its base, and from this 
additions to the stipe are made. Tangential and obliquely vertical 
injuries are followed by new outgrowths on the side of the stipe, a 
blade at right angles or oblique to the stipe, and ultimately a new 
portion of stipe at right angles or oblique to it. This results in 
" branching " forms of Laminaria sinclairii, which are very puzzling 
until their origin is understood. In Laminaria sinclairii, at least, 
the outermost tissues take no part in the restorative regeneration. 
As in the periodic physiological regeneration, it is only the inner 
tissues of the stipe which have the power of regenerative growth. 

Whether the so-called " trilaminate " forms are also the result of 
regeneration or not is uncertain. In these forms a complete, or usually 
a partial, blade springs at right angles from one surface of the origi- 
nal blade. If this is fairly complete and well developed, it gives the 
blade the appearance of consisting of three blades joined together. 
Although such forms are not infrequently met with, their origin is 
as yet uncertain. The best-known cases of restorative regeneration 
have arisen in connection with the stipe or transition-place. 

SPECIAL MORPHOLOGY AND CLASSIFICATION. 

It has seemed best to combine the accounts of special morphology 
and classification, and to include brief accounts of all the species of 
Laminariaceae known in North America in their proper sequence 
and under their proper subfamilies and tribes. 

Family LAMINARIACEAE. 

Subfamily 1.— LAMINARIOIDEAE. 

Stipe present, at least in early stages, persistent or evanescent, 
neither branched (except in Nos. 3, 4, and 9) nor provided with 



142 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

leaflets; blade plane, simple, or digitately divided (becoming com- 
pound only in Nos. 3, 4, and 9) ; paraphyses provided with hyaline 
appendages, except in Tribe 1. 

Tribe 1. — Phyllarieae. 

Holdfast discoid or bullate, never of branched hapteres; blade 
plane ; paraphyses destitute of hyaline appendages. 

1. Phyllaria (Le Jolis) Gobi. 

Tribe 2. — Laminarieae. 

Holdfast discoid or of branched hapteres; blade plane, bullate 
within margins or ruffled, never with longitudinal folds, ribs, or 
perforations; paraphyses with hyaline appendages. 

%. Laminaria Lamour. 

Tribe 3. — Hedophylleae. 

Holdfast of branching hapteres ; stipe present in early stages, per- 
sistent or vanishing, falsely branched above (except in Hedophyllum 
sessile) ; paraphyses with hyaline appendages. 

1. Bases of blade not auriculate. 

3. Hedophyllum Setchell. 

2. Bases of blade auriculate. 

4- Arthrothamnus Rupr. 

Tribe 4. — Agareae. 

Holdfast discoid or of branched hapteres; stipe and blade simple 
(or compound in No. 9), provided with longitudinal folds, ribs, or 
perforations; paraphyses with hyaline appendages. 

1. Blade with a single, broad, shallow meridional fold. 

5. Pleurophycus Setchell and Saunders. 

2. Blade with several (3) longitudinal folds. 

6. Cymathaere J. Ag. 

3. Blade with several {^-5) longitudinal ribs projecting only 

on one or other surface. 

7. Costaria Grev. 
4.. Blade with a broad midrib and more or less perforated. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 143 

8. Agarum (Bory) P. & E. 

6. Blade early divided, destitute of midrib, perforate,' stipe 
branched. 

9. Thalassiophyllum P. & R. 

Subfamily 2.— LESSONIOIDEAE. 

Stipe persistent, elongating, branched dichotomously or sympodi- 
ally, through repeated longitudinal splittings at the transition place; 
paraphyses with hyaline appendages. 

Tribe 5. — Lessonieae. 

Branching of the stipe regularly dichotomously throughout, or 
nearly so. 

1. Stipe erect, solid, with or without a definite trunk. 

10. Lessonia Bory. 

2. Stipe flattened, prostrate, rooting. 

11. Dictyoneuron Rupr. 

3. Lower part of stipe forming a hollow trunk bearing a bunch 

of short branches and blades at its summit. 
(/) Trunk cylindrical, hollow, and of same diameter through- 
out. 

12. Postelsia Rupr. 

(b) Trunk solid below, hollow above, constricted just below 
the apex and then expanded into a large hollow bulb. 

13. Nereocystis P. & R. 
Tribe 6. — Macrocysteae. 

Branching of the stipe at first regularly dichotomous, but soon 
becoming unilateral and sympodial. 

1. Stipe solid, slender, soon sympodial, bearing numerous 

blades which bear bladders at their bases. 

llf.. Macrocystis Kg. 

2. Stipe forming a trunk solid below, holloic above, constricted 

just below the apex and then expanding into a large hol- 
low sphere, bearing two branches which branch at first 
dichotomously but soon sympodially. 

15. Pelagophycus Aresch. 
Subfamily 3.— LESSONIOPSOIDEAE. 

Stipe increasing in complexity in two ways: (1) By dichotomous 
splitting at the transition-place (Lessonioid), and (2) by outgrowths 



144 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

(sporophylls) on the margins of the transition-place on the side to- 
ward the stipe (Alarioid) ; paraphyses with hyaline appendages. 

Tribe 7. — Lessoniopseae. 

Characters of the subfamily. 

16. Lessoniopsis Reinke. 

Subfamily 4.— ALARIOIDEAE. 

Complexity of the front arising by outgrowths from the margins 
of the transition place and usually functioning as sporophylls; 
paraphyses with hyaline appendages. 

Tribe 8. — Alarteae. 

Outgrowths (leaflets or sporophylls) arising on the stipe side of 
the transition place only ; no bladders. 

1. Sporophylls of continuous growth; blade with thickened 

meridional region but no distinct midrib. 

17. Pterygophora Eupr. 

2. Sporophylls of limited growth; blade with distinct midrib. 

18. Alaria Grev. 

Tribe 9. — Ecklonieae. 

Outgrowths (leaflets or sporophylls) arising on the blade side of 
the transition place only ; no bladders. 

19. Eisenia Aresch. 

Tribe 10. — Egregieae. 

Outgrowths (leaflets or sporophylls) arising on both the stipe side 
and on the blade side of the transition place; some of them pro- 
vided with bladders. 

20. Egregia Aresch. 

Family LAMINARIACEAE. 

Complex plants having a brown coloring matter (phycophaein) in 
addition to the chlorophyll, thus appearing of different shades of 
brown and olive green to almost black; having the plant body differ- 
entiated (at least when young) into holdfast, stipe, and blade; hav- 
ing zoospores with laterally attached flagella, contained in unilocular 
zoosporangia (" gametangia " of Drew), which, intermingled with 
unicellular paraphyses, are combined into broad patches or sori, 
usually situated on the blade, but in some species on special leaflets 
(sporophylls) , or even on the flattened, often also ruffled, stipe. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OE THE UNITED STATES. 145 

The family of the Laminariaceae, or kelps, comprises 25 or 26 
genera and 80 to 90 species. On the coasts of the United States (in- 
cluding Alaska) full 19 genera are to be found and about 50 species. 
The family is fairly compact, and is related most nearly to the Chor- 
daceae, and through them probably to the Punctariaceae. Many or 
all of the kelps are large in size, i. e., for algae, and some of them 
grow to be very long and of fair bulk. In all structure they are 
complex, having well-developed assimilatory, mechanical, and con- 
ducting systems of tissues. In these they present a complexity and 
grade of differentiation of distinctly higher type than found among 
other algae and approaching, especially in the sieve tubes of the more 
complex forms, the types of tissues in land plants of the flowering- 
plant class. 

The Laminariaceae are abundant on both the east and the west 
coasts of North America. On the east coast they are most abundant 
in Baffin Bay and on the coast of Labrador, decreasing in numbers, 
both of species and individuals, to the southward. They are not 
found much to the southward of New Jersey on the east coast. The 
east coast possesses about 9 species distributed through 4 genera. 
The west coast of North America has the richest kelp flora, both as 
to variety of genera and species, of any region inhabited by the 
Laminariaceae. From Bering Sea to Magdalena Bay they abound, 
decreasing, as usual, toward the south. On this long strip of coast 
are to be found over 80 species distributed through at least 18 gen- 
era, there being only 1 genus of the Atlantic coast not represented on 
the Pacific coast. The only coast approximating the number of 
genera and species of Laminariaceae found on the Pacific coast of 
North America is the eastern (i. e., northeastern) coast of Asia, but 
this rich district lacks 7 genera of those found on the North Amer- 
ican side. 

As has been mentioned above, it has been found desirable to divide 
the family into 4 subfamilies, the Laminarioideae, the Lessonioideae, 
the Alarioideae, and the Lessoniopsoideae, in accordance with the 
varying methods of increasing the complexity of the frond, noted 
particularly in the postembryonal stages and originating at the 
transition place. These types of the subfamilies are clearly distinct 
from one another and are further divided into tribes. 

Subfamily 1.— LAMINARIOIDEAE. 

The members of this subfamily are distinguished from those of the 
other subfamilies by their simplicity. They consist, for the most 
part, of plants having a holdfast, single stipe, and blade. The stipe 
may disappear early and its place be taken by the arms (or pseudo- 
stipes), arising from the thickened basal margins of the blade (e. g., 
Hedophyllum suhsessile, Thalassiophyllum, and Arthrothamnus) , but 
this exceptional process is decidedly unlike the regular and repeated 
process of splitting at the transition place found in the Lessonioideae. 
The blade may be plane, ruffled, bullate, perforate, or ribbed, but, 
nevertheless, compared with the complex fronds of the members of 
the other subfamilies, they are still simple. There is : however, enough 
variety in the fronds to warrant their separation into four tribes — ■ 
the Phyllarieae, the Laminarieae, the Hedophylleae, and the Agareae. 

20827°— S. Doc. 190, 62-2 10 



146 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The members of this subfamily are nearly all to be found in the 
boreal, north temperate, and north subtropical waters. Two species 
of Laminaria are found on the southern and western shores of 
Africa and one species {Laminaria himantophylla P. & R.) is credited 
to the. extratropical shores of South America, but has never been 
seen since its description. 

Tribe 1. — Phyllabieae. 

The members of this tribe have holdfast root, stipe, and blade, all 
simple, with the blade plane, but the}'' are to be distinguished from 
other members of the Laminarioideae by the fact that they lack the 
hyaline appendages to the paraphyses found in all other members, 
not only of this subfamily but of the family, so far as is known. It 
may be that they should be separated as a special subfamily, but, 
fundamental as is this difference, it seems best to keep them in the 
Laminarioideae. They form a link in this, and in a certain sim- 
plicity of internal structure, between Laminaria and Chorda (which 
also lacks hyaline appendages). 

There are only two genera in the Phyllarieae — Phyllaria and Sac- 
corhiza. The latter genus, containing one species, is found only on 
the southwestern shores of Europe. It is a large plant, like a Phyl- 
laria in its early stages, but developing a hollow bulblike holdfast, 
up to a foot in diameter and covered with hapteres, a broad, finally 
ruffled stipe, and a large broad blade digitately split into many 
segments. A full-grown, full-sized plant, when fresh, spreads 7 feet 
across and weighs so much that a man finds it a considerable load to 
carry. It is an annual plant, (cf. Barber, 1889.) 

1. Phyllaria (Le Jolis) Gobi. 

Root discoid or with a few rudimentary hapteres ; stipe cylindrical 
below, flattened above; blade simple or digitately divided, plane; 
sori broad; on both sides of the blade; paraphyses without hyaline 
appendages. 

A genus of three or four species, as usually recognized, two of 
which are confined to the western Mediterranean Sea. 1. P. derma- 
toclea (de la Pyl.) Gobi, is the only species within our limits. It is 
a plant more or less common on the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod 
northward. It occurs also in northern Europe. 

Tribe 2. — Laminarieae. 

The members of the tribe possess holdfast, stipe, and blade in well- 
developed form, even in the adult stages. The holdfast is discoid 
(L. solidungula), in the form of one or more regular or irregular 
whorls of more or less dichotomous hapteres, or in the form of a 
branched and creeping rhizome. The stipe is simple, cylindrical, or 
more or less flattened, with trumpet hyphae in the medulla, and with 
or without mucilage ducts; the transition place is plane and un- 
modified; the blade is single, simple, or palmately deeply split, and 
plane or with a row of bullae on either side of the meridional region, 
with the borders more or less ruffled. The sori occur on the blade in 
the form of extended patches. In most species they may cover both 



FEETILIZEE RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 147 

surfaces, especially of the meridional region, or they may be present 
as rounded or irregular shaped patches. In some species they form 
longitudinal vittae; in others, hieroglyphic shaped patches over the 
central part of the blade; in others, distinct rounded patches on the 
sides of the blade (leaving the meridional portion free) when they 
are either basal (L. rodriquezii) or in a fairly regular series (species 
of Kjellmanniella). The paraphyses are always provided with a 
terminal hyaline appendage. There are at most two genera in this 
group, viz, Laminaria and Kjellmanniella. The former consists of 
many species widely distributed in the frigid and temperate waters 
of the northern hemisphere and represented scantily in the south 
Atlantic and south Pacific ( ? ) waters. The latter is restricted to a 
few species of Japanese waters, and is little known at present (cf. 
Miyabe, 1902). It seems to be a link between the Laminarieae and 
the Agareae. 

2. Laminaria Lamour. 

Holdfast of branched hapteres, rarely disk shaped; stipe simple, 
well developed, cylindrical or flattened above, solid or hollow, with 
trumpet hyphae, with or without mucilage ducts, with or without 
annual ( ? ) rings ; transition-place plane, undivided ; blade simple or 
palmately more or less deeply split, plane, or with intramarginal 
bullae and marginal ruffles, with or without mucilage ducts; sori 
diffuse or circumscribed covering both surfaces wholly or partially, 
at times vittate or rounded ; paraphyses with well-developed hyaline 
appendages. 

The genus Laminaria, as at present circumscribed (i. e., excluding 
Kjellmannia), contains about 35 described species distributed on the 
northern and middle shores of Europe, Asia, and both coasts of 
North America. Two species occur in southwestern Africa and one 
(L. himantophylla) is reported from the extra tropical shores of 
South America. Some of the species need careful revision. The 
species are separated as to whether the blade is split or entire and 
as to the presence or absence of mucilage ducts in the stipe and in 
the blade. In accordance with these characters the North American 
species may be arranged as follows : 

Section I. — Saccharinae. 

Blade simple, or only occasionally split. 

a. Mucilage ducts absent from both stipe and blade. 

1. L. agardhii Kjellm. 

b. Mucilage ducts absent from the stipe, present in the blade. 

a, Blade plane, ruffled, or bullate, but not longitudinally 
wrinkled. 
1. No creeping rhizome present. 
* Stipe solid, cylindrical. 

2. L. saccharina (L.) Lamour. 

** Stipe solid, flattened above. 



148 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

3. L. complanata (S. & G.) Setchell. 

*** Stipe cylindrical, hollow above. 

4. L. longicruris de la Pyl. 

2. Creeping rhizome present. 

5. L. longipes Bory. 

b. Blade not plane, ruffled, or bullate, but coarsely and longi- 
tudinally wrinkled. 

6. L. farlowii Setchell. 

c. Mucilage ducts present in both stipe and blade. 

a. Holdfast discoid. 

7. L. solidungula J. Ag. 

b. Holdfast of branched hapteres, no rhizome. 

* Stipe short in proportion to the blade. 

8. L. cunei folia J. Ag. 
** Stipe long in proportion to the blade. 
9. L. groenlandica Rosenw. 

c. Holdfast of branching hapteres, creeping rhizome present. 

10. L. sinclairii (Harv.) Farlow. 
Section II. — Digitatae. 

Blade vertically split into few or many segments. 

a. Mucilage ducts absent from both stipe and blade. 

11. L. ephemera Setchell. 

b. Mucilage ducts absent from the stipe, present in the blade. 

a. Stipe stout, rigid, flattened above. 

12. L. digitata (L.) Lamour. 

b. Stipe cylindrical or compressed, weak. 

* Blade broad, often cucullate, split, usually, into few 
to several broad segments or entire. 

13. L. cucullata (Le Jolis) Foslie. 

** Blade narrow, split into few to several narrow seg- 
ments. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 149 

14. L. stenophylla (Harv.) J. Ag. 

c. Mucilage ducts present in both stipe and blade. 

a. Stipe cylindrical or only slightly compressed toward the 

apex. 
* Mucilage ducts of the stipe just below the surface, 
even at the base. 

15. L. dentigera Kjellm. 

** Mucilage ducts of the stipe, at least at the base, deep 
(about halfway between the surface and the 
center). 

16. L. andersonii Farlow. 

b. Stipe flattened from shortly above the base, upwards. 

Blade plane, without bullae. 

17. L. platymeris de la Pyl. 

**. Blade with a row of prominent bullae within each 
margin. 

18. L. bullata Kjellm. 

Section I. — Saccharinae. 

Blade simple, or only exceptionally split into one or two compara- 
tively broad divisions, perfectly plane or with intramarginal bullae 
and marginal ruffles. Sori more or less covering the surfaces of the 
blade or circumscribed into rounded patches and at times occupying 
only the meridional region. 

1. L. agardhii Kjellm. is a species with longer or shorter stipe 

branched hapteres without a rhizome and destitute of mucilage 
ducts in both stipe and blade. It occurs on the Atlantic coast 
of North America, from New Jersey northward. It is also found 
in Greenland, Spitzbergen, and the Murman and Kara Seas. 

2. L. saccharina (L.) Lamour. has mucilage ducts in the blade, but 

none in the stipe. Otherwise it varies as the preceding species 
does. On the Atlantic coast of North America it extends from 
Cape Cod northward and on the Pacific coast from Cape Flat- 
tery northward. 

3. L. complanata (S. & G.) comb. nov. is the L. saccharina f. com- 

flanata of Setchell and Gardner, Algae of northwestern Amer- 
ica, p. 26, 1903, and of Gardner, in Collins, Holden, and Setchell, 
Phyc. Bor. Am., Fasc. D: No. LXXXVII, 1905 (Exs.). It is 
to be distinguished from other species of the Saccharina section 
by its very much flattened stipe. It is known as yet only from 
the region of Puget Sound. 
J^.. L. longicruHs de la Pyl. is a species of the Atlantic coasts of 
North America, from Long Island Sound northward. It is to 
be distinguished by having the upper half, or more, of the stipe 
hollow. 



150 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

5. L. longipes Bory is a species of the Bering and Ochotsk Seas. It 

lacks mucilage ducts in both stipe and blade, and has creeping 
rhizomes, which give off hapteres and new fronds. It is to be 
distinguished from L. sinclairii by its absolute lack of mucilage 
ducts. 

6. L. farlowii Setchell occurs on the coasts of southern and middle 

California, and is to be recognized by its rather thick, coriaceous, 
coarsely longitudinally wrinkled blade. 

7. L. solidungula J. Ag. is a species of the coasts of Greenland, 

Spitzbergen, and of the Kara, Murman, and Siberian Seas. It 
probably lies entirely without our limits, but has been reported, 
probably erroneously, from the Alaskan shores. It is to be dis- 
tinguished by its broad and massive discoid holdfast. 

8. L. cuneifolia J. Ag. is another species not certainly known to occur 

on the coast of the United States. It has been reported from 
Alaska, but the report needs confirmation. It resembles the 
forms of L. saccharina and L. agardhii, but has mucilage ducts 
in both stipe and blade. It is to be distinguished from L. groen- 
landica by its stipe being always much shorter than the blade. 

9. L groenlandica Rosenv. is very similar to L. cuneifolia, except that 

its stipe is long in proportion to the blade. Thus far, it is re- 
ported only from Greenland (both east and west coasts). It 
may at some time be found on the northern New England coast. 

10. L. sinclairii (Harv.) Farlow is very common on the Pacific coast 

of North America from just above Point Conception in Califor- 
nia to the southern end of Vancouver Island. Its creeping 
rhizomes and the presence of mucilage ducts in both stipe and 
blade easily separate this species. Its long, narrow, strap-shaped 
fronds also distinguish it from all except L. longipes. 

Section II. — Digitatae. 

Blade vertically split into few or many segments. While in gen- 
eral there is no difficulty in recognizing the members of the digitate 
group of species of Laminaria, we do find entire forms occurring in 
the form- variations of each and every species under it. For the most 
part such forms are broad, plainly indicating their affinities ; in some 
species, notably in L. oullata and L. ephemera, they may be very 
narrow, resembling thus the members of the Saccharina section very 
closely. On the other hand, broad (or even narrower) forms of L. 
farlowii may be occasionally split into one or two divisions. Ex- 
cept for the two species just mentioned, there is little difficult}'' in 
deciding to which section of the genus to refer any given plant. 

11. L. ephemera Setchell is a delicate species with or without digi- 

tately split blade, absolutely devoid of mucilage ducts, and hav- 
ing a discoid holdfast. It has been found near Pacific Grove, 
Cal., and at Port Renfrew, on the southern coast of Vancouver 
Island, British Columbia. 

12. L. digitata (L.) Edm. is a somewhat variable species, with muci- 

lage ducts in the blade, but lacking them in the stipe, and hav- 
ing the stipe rigid, stout, but decidedly flattened above. It oc- 
curs in several forms on the Atlantic coast from Long Island 
Sound northward. The plants of this species are commonly 
known as "Devil's Aprons," and in Scotland as "Tangle." 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 151 

IS. L. cucullata (*Le Jolis) Foslie is a plant of the digitate section, 
with a cylindrical or slightly flattened and weak stipe. It usu- 
ally has a broad blade, ovate or cordate at the base, and split into 
few to several segments. It inhabits quieter waters on the south- 
ern coasts of New England. 

H. L. stenophylla (Harv.) J. Ag. has the stipe of the last, but the 
blade is narrow, cuneate, and split into a number of narrow seg- 
ments. It grows on rocks and mussel shells in exposed places on 
the coast of New England north of Cape Cod. 

15. L. dentigera Kjellm. is a species of the Bering Sea and the 

Aleutian Islands. It has a stout stipe, only slightly compressed 
above, and with the mucilage ducts, even in old specimens, very 
little under the surface. It may prove to be only a high north- 
ern variety of the next. 

16. L. andersonii Farlow is very similar to the last, but has the mu- 

cilage ducts, in the lower portions of the stipe at least, situated 
about half way between the periphery and the center. It is 
found on the Pacific coast from somewhere below Monterey, 
Cal., to Puget Sound. 

17. L. platymeris de la Pyl. is a species long known on the coast of 

New England. I here use it to include a number of described 
species, viz., L. bongardiana P. & R., L. fissilis J. Ag., L. nigripes 
J. Ag., L. atrofulva J. Ag., Hafgygia ruprechti Aresch., L. dis- 
color Stromf., and L. taeniata P. & R. All these described spe- 
cies seem to agree in having a plane, digitate blade of varied 
shape and degree of spliting and a stipe, decidedly flattened 
from just above the base. From the succeeding species this 
species is to be distinguished chiefly by the absence of longitu- 
dinal rows of transverse bullae with each margin of the blade. 
As thus understood, it is circumpolar and to be found both in 
the north Atlantic and the north Pacific Oceans. On the At- 
lantic coast it ranges from Cape Cod northward and on the 
Pacific coast its southern limit is the Strait of Juan de Fuca. 
It is found on the northern shores of Asia, of Europe, and on 
those of Spitzbergen and of Greenland. 

18. L. bullata Kjellm. is a very variable species in form and size, 

occurring from simple Saccharina forms with entire blade to 
broad deeply split digitate forms with few to several divisions. 
It is to be distinguished from the last by the row of large, promi- 
nent, transverse bullae within each margin of the blade. Its 
distribution is entirely north Pacific, extending from the Strait 
of Juan de Fuca north into Bering Sea. 

Tribe 2. — HEDOPHYiiLEAE. 

Stipe present only in very young plants, later disappearing or re- 
maining short and obscure; blade plane (or irregularly bullate), 
soon becoming sessile and more or less decumbent, thickened, and 
emitting hapteres, either scattered or in whorls; meridional region 
in most species wearing away, leaving the thickened (and sometimes 
auriculate) basal margins separated from one another, to grow on 
into simple or, in turn, dichotomously falsely branched fronds. 



152 FERTTTJZEB BESOTJRCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

S. HedophyUvm Setchell. 

Plants at first like Laminariae of the digitate section, with hold- 
fasts, very short stipes, and broad plane blades; meridional region 
at times remaining intact and splitting vertically (H. sessile), at 
other times wearing away to the very base leaving the margins to 
continue the growth {H. subsessile and H. spirals), as broader or 
narrower blades, plane, cucullate, or spirally twisted but without 
basal auricles ; sori basal, irregular in shape. 

A genus, to which there are at present reckoned three species, all 
distinguished from other kelps by having the base of the blade more 
or less decumbent and without auricles. It may be divided into two 
sections, viz, (1) having the hapteres arising irregularly from the 
decumbent base (cf. Setchell, 1905, p. 12, figs. 3, 4) and the meridional 
region persistent, and (2) having the hapteres arising from the bases 
of the blade in distant whorls or absent, and the meridional region 
wearing away even to the base (cf. Setchell and Gardner, 1903, pi. 20, 
fig. 31). The genus was founded on the plant (H. sessile (Ag.) 
Setchell), which comprises the first section, which is much simpler 
in its morphology and development than the other two. In the other 
two species, viz, H. subsessile (Aresch.) Setchell and H. spirale 
Yendo, the meridional region wears away almost to the base, where 
the portions left thicken into two arms (one on each side of the 
original short stipe), which seem like branches of the stipe, each 
bearing a partial blade. The short stipe disappears early in H. sessile, 
later, in all probability in H. subsessile, and seems persistent in H. 
spirale. The last two species resemble Arthrothamnus, but in the 
species of that genus the partial blades are again eroded in the cen- 
tral region, which process is repeated several times (cf. Yendo, 1903, 
pp. 168 et seq., pi. 6, figs. 9-11), the partial blades are narrow, strap- 
shaped, and provided with prominent auricles at the base. 

The genus Hedophyllum is not entirely satisfactory in its charac- 
ters. Between H. sessile and E. spirale, there is a very considerable 
divergence only partially harmonized by H. subsessile. More species, 
or more stages of development, may be discovered and may lead ulti- 
mately to segregation, but it seems best to leave it as it is, for the 
present. 

4.. Arthrothamnus Rupr. 

Holdfast either primary at the base of the stipe or secondary, in 
more or less dense whorls clothing the arms (or false branches) ; true 
stipe short, simple, flattened; false stipe (thickened bases of the 
blade) repeatedly dichotomous, prostrate, or erect; blades narrow, 
strap-shaped, auricled at the base, wearing away in the center, thick- 
ening into " arms " at the base, each new blade arising from the more 
or less scrolllike auricle by a conico-cylindrical process; sori ? 

The genus Arthrothamnus was founded by Ruprecht (1848, p. 67) 
to receive A. kurilensis a plant of the Kurile Islands, unlike any other 
kelp. Later (1851, p. 350), Ruprecht enlarged it to receive also the 
Fuous bifldus of Gmelin (1768, p. 201, pi. 29, fig. 2). J. G. Agardh 
(1867, pp. 25-28) added the Laminaria longipes Bory (cf. above) 
and L. bongardiana P. & R. (cf. above under Hedophyllum subses- 
sile). These two last species, however, are to be rejected from the 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 153 

genus, which still retains the two species assigned to it by Ruprecht. 
Much more needs to be known concerning these rare plants of the 
Kurile Islands and of Bering Island. Yendo (1903, pp. 168-169, 
PI. VI, figs. 9-11) has added much to our knowledge of the develop- 
ment and made it clear that, in the present stage of our knowledge, 
it is best to retain the genus near Hedophyllum, at least near to 
H. subsessile and H. spirale, but also to note that in the continued 
splitting of the transition place, it approximates to the Lessonioideae. 
Neither of the species has yet been found within our territory, but 
they are both fairly likely to occur on the Western Aleutian Islands 
at least. Hence, this brief mention has been made. 

Tribe 3. — Agareae. 

Stipe persistent, elongating (except in Thalassiophyllum) ; blades 
longitudinally plicate or ribbed, plane, bullate, or perforate, in some 
genera with scrolls at the base. 

The Agareae vary much in character, but in no case is the blade 
absolutely plane. There are longitudinal folds or ribs, or else per- 
forations. In some cases ribs and perforations or bullae are com- 
bined. The genera are all of the Northern Hemisphere and, with one 
exception, are to be found in the North Pacific. All of the 5 genera 
and all of their species are to be found on the western and north- 
western coasts of North America. I am uncertain as to whether the 
Laminaria gyrata Kjellman, which Miyabe has made the type of his 
new genus Kjellmanniella (1902, p. 1, pis. 15-17 [nomina nuda?]), 
is to be included under this tribe or under the Laminarieae. It has 
certain resemblances in having an almost midriblike meridional 
region (cf. Kjellman, 1892, and Miyabe, loc. cit.) and may^ have to 
be placed near to Pleurophycus, though by no means identical with 
it. I have not had the opportunity of examining any specimens. 
Some one of the species may yet be found on the coasts of Alaska. 

5. Pleurophycus Setchell and Saunders. 

Holdfast of branching hapteres; stipe simple, elongating; blade 
long, undivided, with a single median, longitudinal, broad, shallow, 
fold, and with broad margins ruffled ; sori narrow, on both surfaces 
of median fold. 

This genus is more like a member of the Laminarieae than any 
other of this tribe, unless it may be the Kjellmanniella of Miyabe. 
Cymathaere comes fairly close, but Pleurophycus seems rather 
nearer. It has the narrow meridional region slightly indented on 
one surface and slightly raised on the other, thus forming a rather 
broad but shallow fold which is not noticeably thickened. 

1. P. Gardneri Setchell and Saunders is the only species. It is a 
large plant, looking much like a species of Laminaria and rang- 
ing along the Pacific coast from Puget Sound to Yakutat Bay. 

6. Cymathaere J. Ag. 

Holdfast discoid, or with inconspicuous rudimentary simple hap- 
teres; stipe short, flattened, persistent, with mucilage ducts; blade 



154 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE "UNITED STATES. 

long, narrow, longitudinally grooved or loosely folded in the meridi- 
onal region, with abundant large mucilage ducts; sori broad on 
both surfaces. 

A genus of one species on the northwest coast of North America 
and in Bering Sea, approaching Laminaria, but distinguished by 
the longitudinal furrows and slight ridges in the meridional region. 
Griggs (1907, p. 89 et seq.) tries to demonstrate that it "branched 
off the main phylum of the Laminariaceae " early. He is led to 
this by his belief that Cymathaere lacks hyaline appendages to the 
paraphyses and of well-developed mucilage ducts in the blade. Both 
of these, however, as I have demonstrated to my own complete satis- 
faction, are present in very characteristic fashion. He also bases 
part of his argument on the presence of a discoid holdfast, "poor 
development of pith web," and long persistence of the one-layered 
blade in juvenile plants. The "pith web," however, seems as well 
developed as in some other characteristic Laminariaceae, and the 
almost (but not quite) simple disk of the holdfast with its rudimen- 
tary hapteres, seems more like degeneration than survival of primi- 
tive characteristics in an arrested form. My own opinion is that it 
is more complex and of later evolution than most (or even all) of 
the Laminarieae, but sharing with Pleurophycus and Costaria a 
position among the simpler Agareae. 

1. G. triplicata (P. & R.) J. Ag., the type and only species, is readily 
told by the three more or less deep longitudinal folds in the 
meridional region and its discoid holdfast. It occurs on the 
Pacific coast from the Strait of Juan de Fuca into the Bering Sea. 

7. Costaria Grev. 

Holdfast of branched hapteres; stipe short, soon flattened, destitute 
of mucilage ducts; blade with longitudinal ribs, projecting on one 
side only and alternating on the two surfaces, bullate and often also 
perforate, destitute of mucilage ducts ; sori broad. 

A genus of only one well-defined species apparently, in spite of 
attempts to distinguish more. Confined to the northern portion of 
the Pacific Ocean. The bullosity of the blade and the well-defined 
longitudinal ribs, each confined to one surface and alternating in posi- 
tion, clearly mark off this genus from Cymathaere from which it is 
also to be distinguished by the branching hapteres of the holdfast. 

1. G. costata (Turn.) Saunders is distributed along the Pacific coast 
of North America from somewhere below Monterey to Bering 
Sea. It seems necessary, under the Vienna Code, to use the name 
of Turner for this species and abandon the familiar name of G. 
turneri P. & R., so long in use. 

8. Agarum (Bory) P. & R. 

Holdfast of branched hapteres ; stipe cylindrical or flattened, elon- 
gating; blade with broad percurrent midrib and perforated margins; 
sorus broad. 

The genus Agarum was refounded and restricted to its present 
usage by Postels and Ruprecht (1840, p. 11). I have included in 
this account two species, the one, A. cribrosum Bory, having the blade 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 155 

unrolling from two scrolls at the base and with distinct cylindrical 
stipe, the other, A fimbriatum Harv., destitute of these scrolls and 
with the stipe flattened and fimbriate. It may be necessary at some 
future time to separate this second species under a generic name of 
its own, but more knowledge of its development is desirable. The two 
species have the same general aspect, but are different in what may 
have to be considered essential respects. 

1. A. cribrosum (Mert.) Bory or "Sea Colander" is the common 

species of both the north Atlantic and north Pacific coasts of 
North America. It is to be distinguished from the next by hav- 
ing a cylindrical stipe, two small scrolls at the base of the blade 
and more regular, as well as coarser, perforations. It ranges 
from Cape Cod to Greenland on the Atlantic side and on the 
Pacific side, from about Sitka, Alaska, into the Bering Sea. 

2. A. fimbriatum Harv. is, so far as known, a fairly local species, 

being found in abundance in a few localities in the Puget Sound 
region. However, it has been found, once or twice, cast ashore 
in southern California, at Santa Barbara and at San Pedro. It 
has a flattened stipe, coarsely fimbriate, and a thin bullose blade, 
sparingly perforate, and with finely crisped margins. 

9. Thalassiophyllum P. & R. 

Holdfast of stout, dichotomously branched hapteres; primitive 
stipe short, not elongating, soon buried among the stout hapteres; 
blade soon eroded to the base and developing two lateral scrolls which 
unroll from thickened margins and form fan-shaped, spirally- 
twisted, closely and regularly perforated partial blades; secondary 
stipes branching adventitiously ; no mucilage ducts in stipe or blade ; 
sori in irregular dark-brown patches. 

A most interesting, peculiar, and rare genus, inhabiting only the 
Bering and Ochotsk Seas. In its embryonal stages it is first like a 
species of Laminaria, then like Agarum cribrosum. The primitive 
stipe never elongates, only thickens ; very early, however, the juvenile 
blade, wearing away in the center, leaves the two marginal scrolls, 
which become perforate and unroll from the outer thickened 
margin and wear away toward the center (cf. Setchell, 1905, PI. 13, 
fig. 12). The plant is now dichotomous and the partial or sec- 
ondary blades are equal. One now begins to grow more than the 
other (cf. Setchell, loc. cit., fig. 13), and the plant becomes one 
sided, the smaller blade remaining nearly stationary or disappearing. 
The pseudostipe, formed from the thickened base of the margin of 
the secondary blade, increases in length and branches adventitiously 
(cf. Rosenthal, 1890, p. 140, PL VII, VIII, figs. 33, 34), and the 
branching frond, with its numerous fan-shaped, perforate, and 
spirally unfolding secondary blades (cf. Postels and Ruprecht, 1840, 
PI. XVIII, XIX) is built up. Were it not for the knowledge we 
now have (cf. Setchell & Gardner, 1903, p. 267; Yendo, 1903, p. 168; 
Setchell, 1905, pp. 123-126, PI. 13, figs. 6-13) , we might still doubt the 
propriety of placing Thalassiophyllum next to Agarum in the tribe 
Agareae. With that knowledge, however, such position becomes im- 
perative and all doubts are dispelled. 



156 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

1. T. clathrus (Gmelin) P. & It. is one of the curiosities of the sea. 
It is restricted to Bering and Ochotsk Sea, where, with its 
shrubby, branching stem and fan-shaped, spirally coiled, regu- 
larly perforate blades, it is a striking plant. 

Subfamily 2.— LESSONIOIDEAE. 

The members of this subfamily are to be distinguished from the 
members of the subfamily Laminarioideae by their complexity. The 
stipe is always more or less branched, and not only branched, but 
branched either dichotomously or sympodially, or both, in a very 
regular fashion. The branching is brought about by longitudinal 
splittings in the transition place, and by this method only. It is this 
which distinguishes the members of the Lessonioideae from the Ala- 
rioideae and from the more nearly related Lessoniopsoideae. In the 
Alarioideae the complexity of the frond over that of the Lamina- 
rioideae arises by means of definitely specialized outgrowths, and 
while the complexity in Lessoniopsoideae arises mainly through lon- 
gitudinal splitting, it also partially arises through definitely special- 
ized outgrowths. The nature of the split has not been carefully 
studied as yet. It seems that growth at the transition place becomes, 
in some manner, localized, ceasing at certain points and becoming 
more vigorous at others. This applies to growth both as to increase 
in length and in thickness. The split, then, is in the nature of a wound, 
similar to the origin of the perforations in Agarum (cf. Humphrey, 
1886, p. 201), where " there is a gradual decrease in the thickness of 
the tissue at the tip of a papilla from the time of its beginning until 
the rupture takes place." As I interpret the various figures of Wells 
(1910, Pis. XII-XV), very similar processes occur in the various 
Lessonioideae investigated by him. The different forms differ some- 
what in unessential detail, as it seems to me, but on the whole the 
essentials of the processes are remarkably close, especially consider- 
ing the differences in texture in the different fronds. I am far from 
agreeing with the interpretation Wells has placed on the processes 
especially in the matter of so-called attenuation and weakening. 
The fact that there is actual rupture, loss of tissue, and regeneration 
of margins tends to bring the process near to the wearing away of 
the tissues of the meridional region in Hedophyllum subsessile, H. 
&?rirale, Arthrothamnus, Thalassiophyllum, and both species of 
Eisenia. In all the cases just mentioned, however, the destruction 
is far greater, both as to bulk and proportional to what remains. The 
actual study of the meristematic regions concerned and the physi- 
ology of the growth remains yet to be investigated in both the mem- 
bers of the Lessonioideae and the species of Laminarioideae and 
Alarioideae just mentioned. 

No members of this subfamily are to be found in the north Atlantic 
Ocean nor in the south Atlantic Ocean in a restricted sense, but they 
are abundant in both the north and south Pacific Oceans, on the coasts 
of New Zealand, western coast of South America, and western coast 
of North America, over to the Sea of Ochotsk on the Asiatic side. 
The Pacific coast of the United States has the most genera and species 
of any of the coasts inhabited by members of this subfamily, there 
being 6 genera, each represented by a single species. The coast of 
South America has 4 species divided between 2 genera, the coasts 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 157 

of Australasia have 2 genera, each with a single species, while the 
extreme northeastern coast of Asia has a single species. It has 
seemed best to divide the subfamily of the Lessonioideae into two 
tribes: (1) Lessoneae, where the splitting is equal throughout, result- 
ing in a more or less complete dichotomy; and (2) Macrocysteae, 
where the splitting is soon unequal and the result is a one-sided 
sympodium. 

Tribe 4. — Lessoneae. 

Holdfast of branching hapteres; stipe persistent, remaining short 
or elongating before splitting; splitting resulting in two equal 
branches, each with its blade, and repeated in the same fashion, giv- 
ing rise to a fairly regularly dichotomous stipe, bearing equal blades 
on its ultimate branches. 

The dichotomy in this tribe is as regular as such a method of 
branching is likely to be. At times, one side of the dichotomy may 
be suppressed or fail to divide farther, but such cases are not the 
rule, only the exception, while in the next tribe, after the first one 
or two divisions, only one side of the dichotomy divides farther. 

10. Lessonia Bory. 

Holdfast of branched hapteres; stipe solid, branching regularly 
dichotomously, with or without thickened trunk below ; blades termi- 
nal, splitting longitudinally; sori broad in patches. 

This genus is not strictly representative of the United States, or 
even of North America. A single little-known species is described 
from the Ochotsk Sea and may at some time be found in the Aleutian 
Islands or vicinity. The genus reaches its maximum of complexity 
and size in the Southern Hemisphere, being represented on the west 
coast of South America, Fuegia, and the Falkland Islands, to reap- 
pear in New Zealand. The species of the Falkland Islands are said 
to be literally arboreous. 

1. L. laminariaeoides P. & R. is the only representative of this 
genus in the Northern Hemisphere. It is said to be abundant in 
the Sea of Ochotsk and may at some time be found on the shores 
of Alaska. 

11. Dictyoneuron Rupr. 

Holdfast (primary) of branched hapteres, secondary holdfasts 
similar, formed on the margins of the prostrate stipes ; stipes erect or 
ascending, soon prostrate and rooting, very much flattened and thin, 
dying off behind and thus vegetatively multiplying; blades reticu- 
lated with coarse ribs ; sori irreglar, broad. 

1. D. californicum Rupr. is the only species and is found along the 
Pacific coast from somewhere below Monterey to the southern 
end of Vancouver Island. 

12. Postelsia Rupr. 

Holdfast of stout branched hapteres; stipe stout, hollow below, 
bearing at its tip the short, slender, solid dichotomous branches; 
blades falcate, deeply and regularly longitudinally furrowed on 
both sides; sori confined to the furrows. 



158 FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

This is a monotypic genus which was described by Ruprecht in 
" Neue oder unvollstandig bekannten Pflanzen aus dem Nordlichen 
Theile des Stillen Oceans," the date of whose separate issue was 
1852. In 1853 it was named Virginia by Areschoug. It is nearly 
related to Nereocystis by its hollow trunk crowned by its tuft of 
dichotomously split blades. It is one of the most distinct and 
beautiful of genera. 

1. P. palmaeformis Rupr. is the fairly well-known " Sea Palm " 
of the Pacific coast and the only species. It grows on the rocks 
and only on shores exposed to the heaviest surge. It extends 
from Point Sur (or below) on the Calif ornian coast to the south- 
ern end of Vancouver Island. 

13. Nereocystis P. & R. 

Holdfast of branching hapteres ; stipe consisting of a long trunk, 
slender, solid, and cylindrical below, gradually swollen and hollow 
above, forming a sort of apophysis, then suddenly contracted with 
a large spherical bladder above the constriction; from the top of 
bladder the stipe is continued as short, croAvded, dichotomous 
branches, ending in the long narrow leaves which have the appear- 
ance of being sessile; sori in broad and elongated patches on both 
sides of the blades. 

1. N . luetkeana P. & R. is the only species, ranging from the neigh- 
borhood of Point Concepcion on the coast of California to the 
Shumagin Islands in Alaska. Often found floating and some- 
times, especially in Alaska, in broad fields. Growing, it forms 
beds of greater or less extent in from 10-30 meters of water. 

Tribe 5. — Macrocysteae. 

Holdfast of branched hapteres; stipe regularly dichotomous for 
the first few divisions, soon unequally dichotomous, and conse- 
quently scorpioidly sympodial; blades of two sorts after the first 
divisions, the terminal blades alone splitting and to one side; sori 
in broad patches. 

H. Macrocystis Ag. 

Holdfast of whorls of repeatedly dichotomous hapteres, arising 
from the base of the stipe, which, at times, also becomes flattened 
and creeping, after the fashion of a rhizome; stipe soon forking 
equally once and possibly twice or thrice, but soon more or less un- 
equally, and finally entirely unilaterally; blade at first splitting 
equally, but soon with splitting confined to the terminal falcate 
bladderless blade, the rest entire and provided with a small bladder 
at the base; sori usually on blades toward the base of the plant. 

1. M. pyrifera (Turn.) Ag. is the only species commonly recognized 
It varies much and has been separated into a number of speciesj 
or at least varieties. The variation in the shape of the bladders, 
the shape of the blades, of the markings of the blades, and the 
possession of a prominent " rhizome " or not, etc., is very con- 
siderable and future study may compel segregation from the 
main type. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 159 

On our Pacific coasts the " Long bladder kelp," as it is called 
extends from the neighborhood of Magdalena Bay, in Lower Cali- 
fornia (Mexico), to Sitka, in Alaska. All along the coast, in favor- 
able places, it forms belts lying at varying distances of half a mile 
or more offshore in 20 to 30 meters depth of water. So extensive and 
so compact are these belts that they form natural breakwaters and 
-are troublesome to steamers passing through them, getting seriously 
entangled in the propellers. The more extensive beds or " banks " 
are indicated on the charts of the United States Coast and Geodetic 
Survey for the information of mariners. For pure bulk, probably 
easily to be obtained by some proper method of gathering, this kelp 
excels all others, since it occurs in fairly deep water and is mixed 
only with the " Bull kelp " or the " Elk kelp," kelps equally desirable, 
apparently, for harvesting. 

15. Pelagophycus Aresch. v 

Holdfast of whorls of repeatedly dichotomously branched hapteres; 
stipe slender and solid below, gradually increasing in diameter and 
hollow above, constricted just below the summit, and then expanded 
into a large hollow spherical bladder, from the summit of which the 
stipe is continued as two stout solid arms; each arm may or may 
not fork once or even twice symmetrically and then split unequally 
and unilaterally, giving rise to a few large blades arranged on one 
side of each arm like a scorpioid cyme, or the branching of each arm 
may be unilateral from the first ; sori in broad patches on the blades. 

1. P. porra (Leman) Setchell is the only species and is called " Elk 
kelp," " Sea pumpkin," and " Sea orange." It grows with the 
preceding along the coasts of California and Mexico (Lower 
California) from Point Concepcion to Magdalena Bay. It has 
been found washed ashore, however, as far north as Santa Cruz 
and the mouth of Tomales Bay. It reaches a length of at least 
50 meters and resembles Nereocystis luetkeana so much in its 
hollow stipe and bulb that it has been placed in the same genus by 
most writers. The unilateral method of splitting, however, neces- 
sitates keeping it distinct and placing it nearer Macrocystis. 
Together with Macrocystis it inhabits the 12-15 fathom (24-30 
meters) zone along the coasts it inhabits. 

Subfamily 3.— LESSONIOPSOIDEAE. 

The members of this family present a complexity arising in two 
ways, viz, by longitudinal splitting at the transition place and also 
by outgrowths at the transition place. In other words, the members 
of this subfamily, in the methods of increase in complexity, combine 
characteristics belonging to the preceding subfamily, the Lessoni- 
oideae, and the following subfamily, the Alarioideae. The vegeta- 
tive increase is that of the former, the increase connected with re- 
production that of the latter. There is but a single species as yet 
known in this subfamily. 



160 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

Tribe 6. — Lessoniopseae. 
Has the characteristics of the subfamily. 

16. Lessoniopsis Reinke. 

Holdfast of stout, branching hapteres ; stipe forming a stout trunk 
which dissolves above into the slender pinnately or dichotomously 
branched branches, produced in two ways: (1) By continued split- 
ting through which the greater multiplication of branches and the 
narrow, strap-shaped blades is brought about, and (2) by outgrowths 
of special broader falcate blades which are produced for bearing the 
sori ; sori on special blades which they cover more or less completely 
on both surfaces. 

1. L. litoralis (Farlow and Setchell) Reinke. The only species is a 
shore kelp, growing on exposed rocks along the Pacific coast of 
North America from somewhere south of Monterey, CaL, to the 
southern portion of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. 

Subfamily 4 — ALARIOIDEAE. 

The members of this family are distinguished by the fact that the 
complexity of the frond arises by outgrowths at the transition place. 
These may arise on the margins of the transition place nearest the 
stipe, on those nearest the blade, or on those nearest both. In ac- 
cordance the subfamily is divided into three tribes, respectively, viz, 
Alarieae, Ecklonieae, and Egregieae. 

Tribe 7. — Alarieae. 

Holdfast of branched hapteres; stipe simple, elongating, with a 
row of sporophylls on each upper margin, which have successively 
originated as outgrowths from the transition place on the side 
toward the stipe. 

The members of this tribe are all to be found in the north Atlantic 
and the north Pacific Oceans, inhabiting the shores of Europe and 
Asia, and both coasts of North America. 

17. Pterygophora Rupr. 

Holdfast of stout, branched hapteres; stipe solid, elongating, pro- 
vided with mucilage ducts; blade terminal ; elongated, thickened in 
the meridional region, but without a midrib in strict sense; sporo- 
phylls lateral, on both sides of the stipe, elongated, of indefinite 
growth ; sori broad, covering both sides of the sporophylls from the 
base to a point well above the middle, as well as similarly placed on 
the terminal blade. 

1. Pt. calif omica Rupr. The only species of the genus ; on the Pacific 
coast of North America, ranging from Lower California to the 
southern end of Vancouver Island ; attached to stones and rocks 
in the lower littoral and sublittoral zones; a robust species. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 161 

18. Alaria Grev. 

Holdfast of stouter or more slender branched hapteres ; stipe solid, 
single more or less stout, with or without mucilage ducts; blade 
terminal elongated, thin, with a central percurrent, distinct, longi- 
tudinal midrib; sporophylls, lateral on both sides of the stipe, 
longer or shorter, broader or narrower, of definite growth ; sori more 
or less nearly covering both surfaces of the older sporophylls, at 
least. 

Alaria is a genus, represented in both the north Atlantic and the 
north Pacific, and whose species have not as ' yet been very satis- 
factorily defined. I have attempted to arrange them intelligibly 
in the following synopsis, using the distinctions afforded by the 
relative proportions of the older sporophylls. The younger sporo- 
phylls, bases of the blades, and cross section of the midrib, are 
often quite different from the older. The arrangement is as follows : 

A,— MIDRIB SOLID. 

I. — SPOROPHYLLS SHORT AND NARROW. 

1. — Blade long and narrow. 

1. A. esculenta (L.) Grev. — Midrib narrow, rectangular in cross section. 

2. A. taeniata Kjellm. — Midrib narrow, oblong in cross section. 

2. — Blade long hut fairly broad. 

3. A. praelonga Kjellm. 

II. — SPOROPHYLLS SHORT AND BROAD. 

1. — Base of adult blade broadly emirate. 

4. .4. tenuifoHa Setchell. — Stipe long, very much flattened, midrib narrow. 
f>. A. marginata P. & It. — Stipe short, nearly cylindrical, midrib broad. 

6. A. pylaii J. Ag. — Stipe short, nearly cylindrical, midrib narrow. 

2. — Base of adult blade truncate to subeordate. 

7. A. membranacea J. Ag. — Stipe long, slender, almost cylindrical. 

HI. — SPOROPHYLLS LONG AND NARROW. 

1. — Midrib narrow, elliptical in cross section. 

5. A. dolichorhaehis Kjellm. — Blade long, attenuate at the base. 

9. A. oblonga Kjellm. — Blade abruptly and broadly cuneate at the base. 

2. — Midrib narrow or moderately broad, oblong in cross section. 

10. A. lanceolata Kjellm. — Blade long, attenuate at the base. 

11. A. musaefolia (de la Pyl.) J. Ag. — Blade broadly cuneate at the base. 

3. — Midrib very broad. 

12. A. laticosta Kjellm. — Blade long, attenuate at the base. 

IV. — SPOROPHYLLS LONG AND BROAD. 

1. — Blade long, attenuate at the base. 

13. A. valida Kjellm. and Setchell. — Midrib broad, prominent. 

20827°— S. Doc. 190, 62-2 11 



162 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

2. — Blade truncate to subcordate at the base. 

14. A. grandifolia J. Ag. — Midrib narrow, little prominent. 

B.— MIDRIB INTERRUPTEDLY HOLLOW. 

15. A. fistulosa P. & R. 

A. MIDRIB SOLID. 

I. — Sporophylls short and narrow. 

1. A. esculenta (L.) Grev. has a narrow midrib, prominent, rectangular in 

cross section and a Jong narrow blade, long attenuate at the base. It is 
common on the Atlantic coast of the United States from Cape Cod 
northward. 

2. A. taeniata Kjellm. is very similar to A. esculenta, but has a less prominent 

midrib, oblong in cross section, as have also A. angusta Kjellm. and 
A. crispa Kjellm., here temporarily placed under it. All three species, 
founded on younger specimens, are found in Bering Sea to the northward, 
and have not been seen since the original collection. 

3. A. praelonga Kjellm. is a somewhat larger species than the last, but agreeing 

in all essential characteristics. The species was founded on older and 
more mature specimens than the three I have just included under A. 
taeniata. Kjellmann says that it was fairly abundant on Bering Island 
and he also has included specimens collected on St. Paul of the Pribilof 
Islands and on Kadiak Island, Alaska. 

II. — Sporophylls short and broad. 

4. A. tenuifolia Setchell is to be distinguished by its long, flattened stipe, only 

moderately broad midrib, short and relatively broad sporophylls, and blade 
broadly cuneate at the base. It is a Pacific coast species and extends from 
Juneau, Alaska, on and up into Bering Sea. 

5. A. marginata P. & R. is a species of the Pacific coast to be distinguished from 

the last by its nearly cylindrical short stipe, short and fairly broad 
sporophylls, and broad midrib. It occurs on the coasts of middle and 
northern California and of Oregon. 

6. A. pylaii J. Ag. is a species of both coasts of North America, although on the 

eastern coast it probably does not occur within the limits of the United 
States. On the Pacific coast it is known from the vicinity of Prince 
William Sound and Kadiak Island. It is to be distinguished from others 
of this group by its short stipe, narrow midrib, and broadly cuneate base 
of the blade. The sporophylls are short and only moderately broad. 

7. A. membranacea J. Ag. is a species which may occur on either coast. At 

present it is known from North America only from Baffin Bay, but it may 
range farther south. It is described as having a long, slender stipe, a rather 
narrow midrib, and with the base of the blade truncate to subcordate. The 
first sporophylls are ample, being almost broader than long, but the later 
ones are about 4 to 6 times as long as broad. 

III. — Sporophylls long and narrow. 

8. A. dolichorhachis Kjellm. has the midrib only moderately broad, little 

prominent on either surface, and elliptical in cross section, the base of the 
blade long attenuate, and the sporophylls very long and narrow. It has 
been found only on Agattu, one of the Aleutian Islands, within our terri- 
tory. It is said also to occur in the Siberian Sea and possibly also in the 
American Arctic Sea. 

9. A. oblonga Kjellm. is reported only from the Siberian Sea, but may, perhaps, 

be looked for in the Bering Sea. It has a narrow prominent midrib, oblong 
in cross section, the base of the blade suddenly and broadly cuneate, and 
the sporophylls moderately long and narrow. 

10. A. lanceolata Kjellm. resembles A. dolichorhachis, but has a more prominent 

midrib, oblong in cross section of the adult. The type locality is Bering 
Island, in Bering Sea, and it occurs also on Amaknak Island in the Bay of 
Unalaska, at Glacier Bay, and at Sitka, Alaska. 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 163 

11. A. musaefolia (de la Pyl.) J. Ag. has a varying but fairly broad, prominent 
midrib, oblong in cross section, a broadly cuneate base to the blade, and 
long, narrow, at times (especially when young) falcate sporophylls. It 
occurs on the Atlantic coast from Maine to Newfoundland, at least. 

12. A. laticosta Kjellm. is to be distinguished by its very broad (up to 1.5 

centimeters wide) midrib. The base is long and gradually attenuate and 
the sporophylls are moderately long and fairly narrow. It is described 
from specimens collected at Bering Island in Bering Sea, and plants from 
Kukak Bay, Alaska, have been referred here with some doubt. 

D. — SPOROPHYLLS LONG AND BROAD. 

13. A. valida S. & G. has a longer or shorter, stout stipe, a broad, prominent 

midrib, a blade with broad but gradually attenuate base, and very long, 
moderately broad sporophylls. It ranges along the Pacific coast from 
Whidby Island, Wash., to Unga Island, Alaska. 

14. A. grand if alia J. Ag. resembles the last, but tbe blade is truncate or sub- 

cordate; the costa narrower and little prominent. It bears about tbe same 
relation to A. valida that A. membranacea does to A. pylaii, except that 
the difference in shape of the base of the blade is more striking in this 
case. It is not known from our territory, but may be expected on either 
coast and to the north. 

B.— MIDRIB INTERRUPTEDLY HOLLOW. 

15. A. fistulosa P. & R. is a variable, possibly composite species very abundant 

along the Pacific coast from Wrangell Narrows, Alaska, north into Bering 
Sea and over into the Kurile Islands and Ochotsk Sea on the coast of 
Asia. It is a large species, reaching a length of 25 meters, with broader 
or narrow blade, but to be distinguished by its broad, interruptedly fistulous 
midrib. It is met with floating, often in great quantity, throughout its 
territory. It usually grows in deep water (20 to 30 meters) and sends its 
blade up to float along the surface, buoyed up by the fistulous midrib. 

Tribe 9. — Ecklonleae. 

The members of this tribe show their relationship to the Alarieae 
by having the complexity of the frond arise by outgrowths at the 
transit place. The Ecklonieae, however, differ from the Alarieae 
by having the outgrowths situated on the margins of the transition 
place nearest the blade, so that the developing structures form pro- 
jections from the margins of the blade. This gives rise to a pin- 
nate blade which may or may not be further modified. The tribe 
contains four genera — Ecklonia, Eisenia, Undaria, and Hirome — of 
which only one, viz, Ecklonia, is found on our Pacific coast. Undaria 
and Hirome are restricted to Japan, which also has species of both 
the other genera. Species of Ecklonia also occur in the Southern 
Hemisphere on the coast of Cape Colony in Africa, in Australia, in 
New Zealand, and also on the coasts of South America. 

19. Eisenia Aresch. 

Holdfast of branching hapteres ; stipe persistent, elongating, pass- 
ing above into two stout arms formed by the thickened bases of the 
blade which wears away in the meridional region; blade at first 
simple, becoming deeply pinnate by the outgrowths arising at the 
base, wearing away in the center, leaving the thickened bases as arms 
( apparently as branches) of the stipe, each arm supporting a small 
basal blade bearing a number of sporophylls; sori in extended areas 
of irregular shape on the sporophylls. 



164 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

In the behavior of the meridional region of the blade in wearing 
away to the transition place, leaving the bases to thicken and to grow 
into arms which bear partial (in this case very small) blades with 
the sporophylls, there is a certain resemblance to the course of de- 
velopment in Hedophyllum (H. siibsessile and H. spirale) and 
Thalassiophyllum, as well as a suggestion of the Lessonioideae and 
even more particularly the Lessoniopsoideae. With the latter, ex- 
cept for detail, the resemblance is striking. Nevertheless, the rela- 
tionships seem with the Ecklonieae rather than with any other group 
of the Laminariaceae. 

1. E. arborea Aresch. is our only species which is found on the coast 
of southern California. It differs from E. bicyclis (Kjellm.) 
Setchell of the Japanese coast by having the sporophylls always 
simple. It is sometimes called " Sea Tree " and " Sea Oak." 

Tribe 10. — Egregieae. 

There is only one genus in this tribe, and it resembles in its pecu- 
liarities the other two tribes of the Alarioideae. Its increase in com- 
plexity is by outgrowths from the transition place, but they originate 
on both the stipe side and the blade side of the transition place, so 
that in developing, the members of this tribe combine the peculiari- 
ties of the Alarieae and the Ecklonieae, possessing sporophylls (or, 
at least, pinnae) on both stipe and blade and forming a most com- 
plex frond. The two species belonging to the single genus of this 
tribe are found only on the Pacific coast of North America. 

19. Egregia Aresch. 

Holdfast of branching hapteres; stipe persistent, elongating, and 
branched, flattened, bearing outgrowths on both margins throughout 
its length, some of the latter being provided with elongated bladders; 
blades comparatively small, more or less pinnate with outgrowths; 
sori on small sporophylls more or less covering both surfaces. 

Egregia has two species, which may be distinguished by the char- 
acters of the stipe (rhachis) . In one, E. menziesii, the stipe is closely 
covered with short blunt papillae, and in the other, E. laevigata, it is 
smooth. 

1. E. menziesii (Turn.) Aresch. is a plant reaching a length of 

nearly 10 meters, much branched, with the flattened stipe (or 
rhachis) roughened on both sides with short blunt papillae and 
with its margins closely beset with short, simple, smooth, 
obovate leaflets, some of which bear ellipsoidal bladders at the 
base and some of which bear sori. It extends from Point Con- 
cepcion, on the California coast, to the southern end of Van- 
couver Island, British Columbia. 

2. E. laevigata Setchell is a much branched plant, similar in gen- 

eral structure to the last, but its flattened stipe is smooth, as are 
also the small, deeply pinnate blades; the leaflets are, in older 
plants, smooth and pinnate, often almost capillary ; also at times 
bearing elongated bladders or sori. It is often called the 
" Feather boa kelp." It is restricted to the coast of California 
south of Point Concepcion, and extends down a way along the 
western coast of Mexico. 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 165 

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS. 

The seaweeds, on account of their abundance and different prop- 
erties, were used in one way or another by primitive peoples inhab- 
iting seashores or adjacent inland districts, and with the spread of 
civilization their use has been continued and extended. With the 
Japanese, Chinese, and Hawaiians they form an article of commerce 
of considerable importance. 

Of the seaweeds, the members of the kelp family or Laminari- 
aceae have been the most used by man. This is probably due more 
to their larger size and greater abundance rather than to any chem- 
ical or physical differences. In their natural state some have been 
used as food for man; some as food for domestic animals, particu- 
larly cattle; and some in medicine; while subjected to various pro- 
cesses they have yielded a number of valuable substances, among 
which are soda, potash, iodine, and algin. All these uses have been 
known for a long period, running perhaps into a number of cen- 
turies. The use of kelps has been largely discontinued by the greater 
number of civilized nations owing to the discovery of other more 
available sources of supply of the products mentioned. The Chinese 
and Japanese still use large quantities of seaweeds as food, either in 
their natural state or as manufactured products. 

HUMAN FOOD. 

The seaweed foods do not form the staple article of diet of any 
nation, but are used as relishes or accessories. The most prominent 
of these among the Caucasian races is Alaria esculenta. Greville 
(1830, p. 26) says: "The midribs of this plant, when stripped of 
the membrane, and sometimes also the leaflets, are eaten in Ireland, 
Scotland, Iceland, Denmark, and the Faroe Islands. It is called 
in Scotland Badderlocks or Hen-ware and in the Orkney Islands 
Honey-ware. Dr. Drummond informs me that in some parts of 
Ireland it bears the name of Murlins," Turner (1809, p. 121) 
spoke of it somewhat earlier as follows : " The plant is much eaten 
in Scotland; the parts employed for that purpose are the midrib, 
stripped of its membrane, which is extremely sweet, and the thick 
part of the pinnae, which are called Keys. The latter, however, 
are only brought to market when thick and fleshy, never when thin 
and membranous. It goes by the name of Daberlocks. According 
to Lightfoot its proper season is September; and he also observes 
that it is recommended in the disorder called a pica, to strengthen 
the stomach and restore an appetite." 

Laminaria digitata also has been used as food. Turner (1809, 
p. 68) says on the authority of Bishop Gunner that " the stem is 
sometimes, when boiled, eaten by men." Foslie (1884, pp. 38, 39) 
translates Stephensen as saying that the Icelanders used the upper 
part of the stipe and the undivided portion of the blade of L. hyper- 
borea, preparing a mush which was resorted to only in times of need. 
Greville (1830, p. 29), in speaking of this species, says: "In Scot- 
land, where the tender stocks of the young fronds are eaten and 
still cried about the streets of Edinburgh, it is called Tangle." The 
Indians in California and perhaps also in other regions of the 
Pacific coast, especially those living near but not in direct contact 



166 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OE THE UNITED STATES. 

with the coast, go down to the shore and collect the coarser red and 
brown seaweeds, dry them, and carry them home for use as food. 
Probably the salt content is one of the things desired. Among such 
brown seaweeds, the bulbs and upper parts of the hollow stipe of 
Nereocystis luetkeana are much sought for. 

These uses, however, are (or were) local and of small amount; 
the Japanese, however, have a regular trade in procuring, drying, 
and packing various Laminariaceae for home consumption and 
for export to China and other countries where Japanese and Chinese 
are settled, while the inhabitants of the shore in Japan make use 
also of the fresh plants. Various articles have been published con- 
cerning this industry of Japan, but the one by Yendo in Postelsia 
for 1901 (the Yearbook of the Minnesota Seaside Station), is the 
most explicit in English. The report by Miyabe, Yanagawa, and 
Ushina, published as a part of the report of the Hokkaido Fisheries 
Bureau, is extended and thorough, but is inaccessible to all except 
Japanese, since it is printed in that language. Some of it has been 
utilized in the account by Hugh M. Smith in " The Seaweed Indus- 
tries of Japan," published in Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries 
of the United States Department of Commerce and Labor (Vol. 
XXIV, pp. 135-165). 

The chief supply is from the several species of Laminaria which 
are called " Kombu? There is a considerable number of boats and 
men, among them Ainu as well as Japanese, engaged in the gather- 
ing. In the proper season, July to October, the kombu fishers go to 
the kelp beds in open boats and with various implements drag, twist, 
or cut the kelps from their attachment to the rocks in water of a few 
fathoms deep, load it aboard, and take it to the shore. Here it is 
spread out carefully on the beaches near the villages to dry and cure 
in the open air. When thoroughly dried the kombu is taken under 
cover and prepared for shipment to the manufacturers. Only the 
better portions of the blade are retained ; the stipe and older portions 
of the blade are rejected. The part selected is neatly shaped, and 
the different kinds, grades, and sizes of kombu are assorted and tied 
up in long, flat bundles. 

From the kombu thus roughly cured and packed more than a 
dozen commodities are manufactured. From the same raw material 
are made varied products which appeal to one or another taste. 
Most of the preparations of kombu do not appeal to the American 
palate, but some, if introduced under favorable circumstances, might 
become an article of diet in this country. 

The most important preparation is the shredded or sliced kombu. 
This is dyed to give it a uniform green color, but this in no wise 
changes its flavor or food value. Formerly this coloring was done with 
copper, but this is now forbidden by law. In the manufacture the raw 
kelp is placed in a strong solution of an aniline dye (malachite green) 
in fresh water and boiled for 15 to 20 minutes, being stirred vigor- 
ously from time to time; after this thorough cooking and coloring 
the mass is drained and taken into the open air for drying. When 
the surface is dry the fronds are separated and laid flat in wooden 
frames and cut into equal lengths. These are then placed in other 
frames, sprinkled with water to make them pack tight, and com- 
pressed into a solid mass. One side of the frame being removed for 
the purpose, the fronds are cut lengthwise with a plane into long 



I 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 167 

thin shreds. The shredded mass resulting is finally spread on mats 
in the open air and frequently turned to secure uniform^ in drying. 
When the outer portion is dry, but enough moisture remains to\eep 
the shreds pliable, they are stored under cover to await packing and 
shipment. They are packed in paper for use at home and into 
wooden boxes for export to China and other countries. 

The kombu described above is made of the thinner fronds, but the 
thicker fronds are sorted out and subjected to a series of processes, 
each of which results in a particular product. First, they are thor- 
oughly soaked in vinegar, drained, and dried in the open air. The 
first preparation consists in scraping away the epidermal layers with 
a rough-edged knife. The first scrapings naturally contain some 
grit and are the cheapest kombu. Then deeper scraping until the 
outer greenish tissues are removed gives a product called the Kuro- 
tororo kombu or black pulpy kombu. The white core remaining 
after the green has been scraped, if scraped again with the same sort 
of knife, gives a fine, white, stringy mass, which is known as Shiro- 
tororo kombu or white pulpy kombu; or a sharp-edged knife may 
be used to separate delicate and filmy sheets of various sizes, and this 
is called Oboro kombu or filmy kombu. The thin central bands left 
after either of these two last-mentioned processes are pressed to- 
gether, cut into equal lengths, and cut into shreds with a plane after 
the fashion of the green-dyed kombu. The shavings look like coarse 
white hair and are called Shirago kombu or white-hair kombu. 

Other preparations may be made from what remains after the first 
scraping. It may be cut into strips, oblongs, squares, triangles, etc., 
and dried over a fire, making Hoiro kombu or dried-on-the-fire 
kombu, or the strips may be coated with white or pink icing and sold 
under the name of Kwashi kombu or sweet cake kombu. The Hoiro 
or died-on-the-fire kombu may be pulverized and put through a fine 
wire sieve, giving a grayish powder known as Saimatsu kombu or 
finely powdered kombu, and this is often compressed into small cakes 
of various shapes and powdered with sugar. There is another prod- 
uct made in the same way as the white-hair or Shirago kombu, the 
shreds, after drying, being cut into lengths of about half an inch. 
This is called Gha kombu, or tea kombu, from its resemblance and the 
method of cooking it. 

The Japanese all use the kombu preparations in one or more of its 
forms. It is eaten without cooking or after treatment with hot water 
or in the form of the crisp sugared strips. The filmy kombu and the 
powdered kombu are used to impart flavor to soups, sauces, etc., and 
the powdered is used as curry powder is. Strips of the dried and un- 
treated kombu are cooked with meat or vegetables, as are also the 
shreds of green kombu. Broad strips of untreated kombu are 
boiled in fresh water for awhile and then, being cut into suitable 
lengths, are wrapped about dried herring, cod, or other fish, and 
cooked in dilute soy, soup, or milk. This dish is called Kombu mati 
or Kombu roll. 

Of the value of the trade in kombu, fairly accurate figures are 
available. In 1901 the Kokkaido fishermen received $464,000 for 
their crop and the manufacturers about 60 per cent additional, 
although the exact amount of the latter's receipts is not obtainable. 
It is a business which is increasing, and it is being fostered by the 
Japanese Government. 



168 FERTILIZEK KESOUB.CES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

While kombu is largely prepared from species of Laminaria, par- 
ticularly from the long, broad, and thick L. japonica and the short, 
narrow, and stiff L. angustata, other species, such as Arthrothamnus 
bifldus and A. kurilensis, and some species of Alaria are also used. 
Yendo (1902, p. 6) says that Undaria pinnatiflda is also dried and 
used under the name of W.akame, and that the peasantry of north 
Japan cut off the sporophylls of this species and, pressing them into 
a slimy liquid with peculiar and distinctive odor, mix it with boiled 
rice. Eisenia bicyclis, he also says, is used under the name of Arane 
and in the same way as Undaria. 

A series of chemical analyses of some of the species of Laminaria 
and Arthrothamnus used commercially was made by Oshima and 
published in the Japanese treatise alluded to above. A translation is 
to be found in the article by Hugh M. Smith (1905, p. 153) on the 
" Seaweed industries of Japan," already cited. 

No attempt has been made in this country to utilize any of the 
abundant material of the Laminariaceae for food purposes. In Seat- 
tle a product known as " seatron " has been made from the bulbs of 
Nereocystis luetkeana. 

FODDER FOE DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 

The Laminariaceae have long been used in connection with the 
feeding of cattle, especially in Norway. Turner (1809, p. 68) states 
in connection with Fucus digitatus {Laminaria hyperborea and L. 
digitata) that " Bishop Gunner, who has given an excellent account 
of it, says that in Nordland the stems and fronds of young specimens 
are boiled and given to cattle." This was probably rather Laminaria 
hyperborea than L. digitata. Foslie (1884, p. 38) repeats the state- 
ment and vouches for its accuracy. He says also that both L. hyper- 
borea and L. digitata are used in winter as a substitute for hay for 
cattle in Finmarken. Later in the same work Foslie (loc. cit., pp. 
54, 55) says that in East Finmarken the inhabitants use Alaria and 
Laminaria as fodder for cattle, of the species of Laminaria, L. digi- 
tate mostly, but partly also L. hyperborea. One species of Laminaria, 
however, was suspected of poisoning and even of causing the death of 
cattle when mixed with the ordinary species. So far as Foslie could 
determine, the suspected plant was likely to prove to be his L. gunneri. 

In the summer of 1899 I was told by several people that kelp was 
used as food for cattle on the coast of Alaska, particularly on Kadiak 
Island, but I was not able to obtain any details as to the extent or 
manner of feeding. 

MANURING. 

For a very long period of time farmers sufficiently near a shore 
furnishing an abundance of Laminariaceous (or even other seaweed) 
material have been in the habit of carting it onto the land and spread- 
ing it out as a top dressing to decompose in position, or have pre- 
viously composted it. This has been done all along the outer western 
coasts of Europe and on the coast of New England in the United 
States. There has been universally favorable testimony to its efficacy, 
particularly for the. production of heavier crops of turnips, wheat, 
potatoes, etc. It has also been used in Japan for the same purpose. 
Turner (1809, p. 68) says of Fucus digitatus {Laminana hyperborea 
and L. digitata) : " This Fucus is commonly used in the manufacture 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 169 

of kelp, and is no inconsiderable article of manure on the coasts where 
it abounds," and quotes Bishop Gunner to the effect that, in a putrid 
state, they are used in Lofoten and Vesteraalen to manure the fields. 
Foslie (1884, p. 53) states that in the preceding year (1883) a farmer 
in Jaederen, a district of southwestern Norway, had used 2,000 cart- 
loads of Laminaria for manuring. This was mostly L. liyperhorea 
and was only a small portion of what was thrown up in the winter on 
the shores of the farmer's own property. Greville (1830. p. 29), 
speaking of Laminaria digitata, says: " On many parts of the British 
coast it is collected and thrown in heaps and in a putrescent state 
extensively used as manure. De la Pylaie (1825, p. 180) states that 
Saccorhiza bulbosa furnishes the best manure and that thistles grow 
so luxuriantty and abundantly on fields over which it has been spread 
that the peasants have a belief that it engenders them. Various algae, 
but particularly the rockweeds (Fucaceae) and kelps (Laminaria- 
ceae), under the name of Varech or Goemon are used either fresh, 
dried, or burned on the coasts of Brittany and Normandy in France. 
The Varech is either cast up on the shore and collected and carted off 
or it is raked from the rocks which are uncovered by the tides or only 
slightly covered with water. If accessible, the Varech is loaded onto 
carts, but if not, it is collected and placed on lighters. The plants 
always have a number of small shells attached to them, which greatly 
increase their fertilizing value, but they are otherwise rich in alka- 
line salts which gives them fertilizing value. The account by Isid. 
Pierre in Moll and Gayot's Encyclopedic pratique de l'agriculteur 
(1882) gives considerable material concerning the nature, use, and 
value of Varech (or Goemon) as a manure. His account has been 
followed by me. If this source of fertilizer should be suddenly with- 
drawn from the farmers of Brittany and Normandy there would be 
a distinct lessening of the luxuriance of the vegetation for which 
these coasts are famous. The " Goemon vert," says Pierre in 1882, 
either cast ashore or cut, is the only fertilizer used in a band of terri- 
tory of 400 kilometers, extending from Paimpol to Brest and extend- 
ing inland 500 meters from the sea. About 30 to 40 cubic meters of 
this manure is needed for each hectare. He quotes M. de Kerjegu 
as saying that it is such lands which produce continuously 40 hecto- 
liters of wheat and 60 hectoliters of barley and rent for 150 to 200 
francs a hectare. Also he adds that the " Goemon vert " forms two- 
thirds of the manure for a distance comprised between 2 and 8 kilo- 
meters from the source of supply. The price of this precious sub- 
stance more than doubled between 1863 and the time of writing (1881 
or 1882) . A cubic meter of " Goemon " is estimated fresh to be be- 
tween 400 and 450 kilograms and the dried " Goemon " at 250 to 300 
kilograms. The latter sells at three times the price of the former. 

In each community there are ordinarily police regulations for each 
locality as to the time and mode of collection. The seaweed cast 
ashore may be gathered at all favorable times. National laws also 
regulating ownership and traffic in Varech have existed for two or 
three centuries, at least in France, and there has been a conflict of 
interests between those using it for fertilizer and those wishing to 
use the soda and potash from the ashes of the burnt Varech, as will 
be alluded to later. 

The fresh seaweed is simply drained and either heaped together, 
when putrefaction soon sets in, or it is burned after "having been 



170 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

dried. There seems to be no agreement as to the best way of using 
the seaweed as fertilizer, but there is a general belief that it is harm- 
ful unless it has been exposed for some days to the action of the 
atmosphere and has also been deprived of its excess of salt by some 
showers, or at least proper drainage. Sometimes it is washed and 
dried, used as fuel, and then the ashes resulting are used as fertilizer. 
These and other references indicate that there is and has been an 
extensive use of Varech, particularly of the digitate Laminariae 
and Laminaria saccharina on the northwest coast of France for 
manuring. 

Of the other coasts of western Europe more has been written about 
the use of kelp as fertilizer in Scotland than in any other country. 
The origin, rise, and fall of the "manufacture of kelp," much dis- 
cussed, has reference chiefly to the manufacture of kelp ash by 
burning rather than to manuring in the proper sense, and this kelp 
ash was used by the soap boiler and the glassmaker, as well as for 
fertilizer. This matter will be taken up under the " Manufacture of 
kelp " below. 

Greville (1830, p. XXIV) has the following to say about the use 
of seaweed in manuring : " It has long been known that common 
sea ware is extremely valuable for that purpose; and if the success 
which has attended the experiments already made with kelp be con- 
firmed by additional observations, the manufacture may still be re- 
garded as an important article of domestic commerce. It appears 
from the communications made to the Highland Society that the 
past success has been such as to induce Lord Dundas to take a cargo 
of 50 tons of kelp to Yorkshire for the sole purpose of agricultural 
experiments. It has been tried as a top dressing, and singly or in 
combination with other manures on corn, pasture, potatoes, turnips, 
etc., and in most instances with decided good effect. The committee 
appointed to collect the result of the experiments are inclined to 
think that for raising green crops it would be better to compost it 
with other substances; that with good earth or moss and a little 
vegetable or animal manure, ' a few tons of kelp would enable a 
farmer to extend his farm dung over at least four times the usual 
quantity of land.' A very curious circumstance is mentioned by 
Charles Mackintosh, Esq., who tried the effects of kelp manure upon 
potatoes at Crossbasket, near Glasgow. A severe frost, which oc- 
curred in September, injured and blackened every lot of potatoes to 
which the kelp had not been applied, while the kelp lots remained 
in perfect foliage, even when the respective drills were contiguous. 
It would appear that the soil for the time being had acquired a prop- 
erty equivalent to a certain degree of atmospheric temperature; or, 
rather, that the nourishment absorbed by the plants under such cir- 
cumstances had enabled them to resist a degree of cold that would 
otherwise have destroyed them." 

The Algae grow very rapidly, and the produce is far less exposed to casual- 
ties than the crops of the agriculturist in so precarious a climate as that of 
the Hebrides and Orkney Islands. I am informed that in some places the sea- 
weed is cut only every third year, while in others, especially where there are 
strong currents, an annual harvest may be obtained without injury. The rapid- 
ity of development in the larger Algae is indeed so striking that I can not 
resist the temptation of transcribing some very interesting facts related by Mr. 
Neill : " They were observed in the course of the very arduous undertaking of 
erecting a stone beacon on a low rock called the Oarr, situated near the en- 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 171 

trance of the Frith of Forth; and when we mention as the observer the dis- 
tinguished civil engineer, Mr. Stevenson, a man accustomed to habits of accurate 
observation, it is perhaps superfluous to add that particular attention was 
bestowed at the request of the writer of this article, and specimens of the Algae 
transmitted to him. The Carr Rock is about 20 feet broad and 60 feet long ; it 
is only uncovered at the lowest ebb of spring tides. It was completely clothed 
with the larger Algae, particularly Fucvs esculentus and F. digitatus. In the 
course of the autumn 1813 the workmen had succeeded in clearing out and 
leveling with the pick and ax a considerable part of the foundation of the 
intended beacon, when in the beginning of November the operations were neces- 
sarily abandoned for the winter. At this time the rock was reduced to a bare 
state. The coating of seaweed had at first been cut away by the workmen; 
the roots or bases were afterwards trampled by their feet, and much of the 
surface of the rock had been chiseled. Upon returning to tbe Carr in May, 
1814, in order to recommence operations, it was matter of no slight surprise 
to find tbe surface agaiu as completely invested with large seaweeds as ever 
it was, although little more than six months had elapsed since tbe work had 
been left off, when, as already said, the rock had been cleared of weed. In par- 
ticular, it was observed that many newly produced specimens of Fucus escu- 
lentus measured 6 feet in length, and were already furnished with the small 
appendages near the base or pinnae, which at maturity contain the seeds of the 
plant. The common tangle, F. digitatus, was generally only about 2 feet long. 
It is to be observed that the specimens here alluded to were taken from that 
part of the surface of the rock which had been dressed off with the pick and 
chisel the preceding autumn ; they had therefore grown from the seed. 

Attention may also be called to a paper by James Hendrick 
(1898), entitled, " The Use and Value of Seaweed as Manure," which 
gives details of the seaweeds used, chemical analyses of the same, 
and plot experiments carried on. The plants are divided into " cut- 
weed " or " shoreweed" made up of the various rockweeds or mem- 
bers of the Fucaceae, and " drif tweed " or " tangle" made up of 
members of the Laminariaceae, particularly of Laminaria digitata 
and L. saccharina. He states that driftweed is more largely used 
in the southwest of Scotland, where cutweed is held in less esteem, 
while in the north of Scotland cutweed is the more highly valued. 
However, ideas varied in various districts of the north. Mr. Hen- 
drick finds reasons for this, viz, that seaweeds are mainly a potassic 
manure and that the difference in soils as to content of potash causes 
a difference in the manner of response to the application of sea- 
weeds; and further that on the better soils it happens that they 
have available farm manures rich in potash. A series of chemi- 
cal analyses of both sorts, in both wet and dry state, follows (cf. 
pp. 123, 125, and 126), showing the content of potash to be 
greater in the Laminareaceous constituent of the driftweed. A 
comparison between the seaweed manure and barnyard manure fol- 
lows. Chemically the farmyard manure, though variable, is a more 
balanced manure and may be used more generally. Seaweed, on the 
other hand, contains about the same proportion of nitrogen as rotted 
dung, but much less phosphate and much more potash. Seaweed, in 
consequence, requires to be used with much more discrimination in 
order to get the best results with it. It must always be borne in 
mind that it is specially deficient in phosphoric acid and specially 
rich in potash. This matter is still further emphasized when we 
inquire into the state in which variable constituents exist in seaweed, 
and whether they are readily available to plants. 

The nitrogen of seaweed is all present as organic nitrogen, chiefly in albu- 
minoids. It is therefore not available to plants until it has undergone decom- 
position and nitrification. Thus seaweed has to decay before its nitrogen is 



172 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

of any use to crops. It is therefore either rotted by allowing it to lie mixed 
with dung for some time or is applied to the soil some months before the crop 
will require it, and plowed down. Under these conditions it decays very 
rapidly and some of its nitrogen soon becomes available. If, then, seaweed 
be allowed to rot for some time, either in the soil or in a manure heap, its 
nitrogen becomes comparable in value to that of dung. In rotted dung a cer- 
tain proportion of the nitrogen is present as ammonium salts, and is almost 
immediately available to plants, while the greater proportion only slowly 
becomes available through further decomposition in the soil. A considerable 
proportion of the nitrogen of dung — that of the straw, for example — becomes 
available only very slowly. Seaweed, to begin with, has no nitrogen in an 
available state, but as it rots very rapidly its nitrogen becomes available 
steadily and gradually, and is therefore of fair value as a fertilizing sub- 
stance. This is a point, however, which will receive its best illustration from 
field experiment. 

Similar remarks to those made on the nitrogen apply to the small quantity 
of phosphate contained in seaweed. 

The case of potash is different. If we burn seaweed and examine the ash 
we find that a very large proportion of it is soluble in water. Not only do 
seaweeds differ from most land plants in containing a great deal more ash, 
but their ash is of a very different composition from that of ordinary land 
plants, and a much larger proportion of it is soluble in water. In that part 
of the ash which is soluble in water all the potash is found, chiefly in the 
forms of potassium chloride and potassium sulphate, substances known among 
manures as muriate and sulphate of potash. But not only is all the potash 
soluble in water after the seaweed is decomposed by burning, but if we take 
the perfectly fresh seaweed and place it in fresh water, it will be found that 
a considerable proportion of its potash will be dissolved out chiefly as potas- 
sium chloride. We may safely assume, then, that part of tbe potash of sea- 
weed used as manure is immediately available to plants, and the rest will 
readily become so as the seaweed undergoes the slow combustion of decay. 
This further emphasizes the fact that seaweed is especially a potassic manure, 
for while its nitrogen and phosphoric acid only become available by decay, part 
at least of its potash is immediately available. 

To sum up : While seaweed is not strictly comparable with farmyard ma- 
nure, it has about the same value per ton. It is an all-around manure spe- 
cially rich in potash and specially poor in phosphate. While, just as in the 
case of farmyard manure, it is difficult to place an exact money value per ton 
on it, it has a considerable value for all-round manuring if supplemented with 
some phosphatic manure, and in special cases by some sulphate of ammonia 
or nitrate of soda; and it has a special value for all soils deficient in potash 
and for all crops which specially require potash. Its richness in potash partly 
explains why it is so largely used for potatoes, and why, when used on pasture, 
it is said to cause such a marvelous growth of clover. Certainly if it pays to 
carry town manure long distances by rail and road, as is constantly done, it 
should pay to go to some little expense and trouble to save large quantities of 
wrack, both cutweed and driftweed, which are allowed to go to waste round 
some parts of our coasts. 

A subsidiary, but by no means unimportant, advantage which seaweed has 
over dung is that it does not carry the germs of diseases nor the seeds of weeds. 
We can not sow out finger and toe, for instance, on the land by means of sea- 
weed as is too often done by means of dung. 

As to the plot experiments carried out under the direction of Mr. 
Berwick, he summarized as follows: 

If now we look at the results of all four experiments it will be seen that, 
weight for weight of manure, seaweed gives just as great a crop of potatoes as 
farmyard manure. When superphosphate is applied along with the seaweed, the 
crop is in every case increased, and except in the case of Roseneath, where 
analysis shows the soil itself to have been high in " available " phosphate, the 
increases are very considerable. On the other hand, in no case does the addi- 
tion of superphosphate to the farmyard manure give any corresponding in- 
crease of crop. The crops with dung alone and with dung and superphosphate 
are practically the same. Seaweed with superphosphate gave a larger crop in 
every case than farmyard manure with superphosphate or farmyard manure 
alone. Even when potash also was added to the dung there was no improve- 
ment, but the contrary. Seaweed, then, when supplemented with superphos- 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 173 

phate, seems capable of giving somewhat larger crops of potatoes than dung. 
The addition of superphosphate both with dung and seaweed had the effect of 
making the produce somewhat more mature. 

On the other hand, dung had the advantage over seaweed in quality of 
produce. In all cases quality as well as quantity was looked to. While quality 
can not be accurately measured like quantity, there was no doubt that the sea- 
weed potatoes were less mature than the dung ones. They were softer and less 
mealy when boiled, and in every case it was held that the results of the seaweed 
plots would have been improved if they could have been allowed to grow for a 
fortnight longer. It is therefore probable that seaweed would give even better 
results with late potatoes. 

As no nitrogenous manure was applied with the seaweed in any of tbe experi- 
ments, and at Turnberry the soil was very deficient in nitrogen, the results 
would seem to indicate that the nitrogen of seaweed readily becomes available 
to potatoes, and is, on the whole, of equal value to that of dung. 

The field experiments, then, confirm the results of analysis, and show that 
seaweed is. weight for weight, as good a manure for potatoes as dung, but that, 
to get the best results with it, it should be supplemented with phosphate. The 
results in Tables V and VII do not show that sulphate of potash has any advan- 
tage over muriate, so far as weight of crop is concerned, nor could good judges 
find any difference in quality or maturity in favor of sulphate. So far as 
these experiments go, then, there does not seem to be much ground for the gen- 
eral belief that muriate of potash is not a suitable manure for potatoes. Used 
in moderate quantity it seems to be quite as useful a manure as sulphate of 
potash. 

On our own New England coast the farmers have long made use of 
driftweed, which is chiefly made up of Laminaria digitata and L. 
saccharina. After storms in autumn, winter, and spring the " weed " 
comes ashore in quantities, forming windrows several feet high along 
the beaches. It is carted onto the land and used in various ways. 
The matter has been noticed in several publications, but particularly 
in Bulletin 21 of the Rhode Island Agricultural Experiment Station 
(Jan., 1893), where the matter has been gone into most thoroughly 
by H. J. Wheeler and B. L. Hartwell. The history and literature of 
the subject is given in extensive detail. They state, quoting the Rhode 
Island State census for 1885, that the value of the seaweed used as 
fertilizer within that State for that year was $65,014, while that of 
commercial fertilizers was $164,133, noting that consequently " the 
seaweed " interest is a large one, even for Rhode Island. In this bulle- 
tin the authors go into the matters of chemical analyses, methods and 
times of using, and manurial values, both absolute and comparative, 
in thorough fashion. 

Storer (1888, l:pp:444, 445) speaks of seaweed as a " potassic 
manure," and hence especially favorable to the growth of clover, and 
says that it has successively given fine crops of clover for many years 
on land on which it, and no other manure, has been used. 

MANUFACTURE OF " KELP." 

" Kelp," in a modified sense, is a term applied to the ash left after 
the combustion of certain members of the Laminariaceae. This ash 
contains potassium and sodium salts as well as iodine. For the last 
of these it was for a long time the principal, practically the sole, 
source, and for the first two also a considerable source, vying with 
"barilla" the ash of certain salt-marsh plants of the pigweed family 
(Chenopodiaceae), as a supply of these materials for the soap boiler 
and the glass manufacturer. The manufacture of " kelp " was par- 
ticularly carried on along the coasts of Ireland, of northern Scotland, 
and of the Orkney Islands. 



174 FERTILIZES, RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

A good account of the rise and progress of this manufacture is 
given by Greville (1830, pp. XXI-XXIV) : 

In the manufacture of kelp, however, for the use of the glassmaker and soap 
boiler, it is that the Algae take their place among the most useful vegetables. 
The species most valued for this purpose are Fucus vesiculosus, nodosus, and 
serratus, Laminaria digitata and bulbosa, Himanthalia lorea and Chorda filum. 
The manufacture of kelp was introduced into Scotland, according to Mr. Neill, 
half a century subsequent to its establishment in France and England, and the 
first cargo exported from Orkney was about the year 1722. The employment, 
however, being new to the inhabitants of Orkney, the country people opposed it 
with the utmost vehemence. Their ancestors had never thought of making 
kelp, and it would appear that they themselves had no wish to render their 
posterity wiser in this matter. So violent and unanimous was the resistance 
that officers of justice were found necessary to protect the individuals em- 
ployed in the work. Several trials were the consequences of these outrages. It 
was gravely pleaded in a court of law, on the part of the defendants, "that 
the suffocating smoke that issued from the kelp kilns would sicken or kill every 
species of fish on the coast or drive them into the ocean far beyond the reach 
of the fishermen; blast the corn and the grass on their farms; introduce dis- 
eases of various kinds; and smite with barrenness their sheep, horses, and 
cattle, and even their own families." The proceedings exist, as I am informed 
by Mr. Peterkin, in the records of the sheriff court, a striking instance of the 
prejudices, indolence, and superstition of the simple people of Orkney in those 
days. The influential individuals who had taken the matter up succeeded in 
establishing the manufacture, and the benefits which accrued to the community 
soon wrought a change in the public feeling. The value of estates possessing a 
seacoast well stocked with seaweed rose so much in value that where the plants 
did not grow naturally attempts were made, and not without success, to culti- 
vate them by covering the sandy bays with large stones. By this method a 
crop of fuci has been obtained, as we are informed by Mr. Neill, in about three 
3'ears, the sea appearing to abound everywhere with the necessary seeds. 
Upon the authority of Dr. Barry (History of the Orkney Islands, p. 383), 
during the years 1790 to 1800 the quantity sometimes made was 3,000 tons, and 
as the price was then from £9 to £10 per ton, the manufacturer brought into 
the place nearly 30,000 pounds sterling sometimes in one season. During the 80 
years subsequent to its introduction (from 1720 to 1800) the total value will 
rise to 595,000 pounds sterling. Thus, says Dr. Barry, " In the space of 80 years 
the proprietors of these islands, whose land rent does not exceed £8,000 a year, 
have, together with their tenants and their servants, received, in addition to 
their incomes, the enormous sum of more than half a million sterling." 

Among the Hebrides, also, large quantities of kelp are manufactured. " The 
inhabitants of Canna," observes Dr. E. D. Clarke (Life and Remains of E. D. 
Clarke, by Otter, Vol. I, p. 338), in 1797, "like those of the neighboring islands, 
are chiefly occupied in the manufacture of kelp. Cattle and kelp constitute, in 
fact, the chief objects of commerce in the Hebrides. The first toast usually 
given on all festive occasions is, A high price to kelp and cattle. In this every 
islander is interested, and it always is drank with evident symptoms of sincer- 
ity. The discovery of manufacturing kelp has effected a great change among 
the people — whether for their advantage or not is a question not yet decided. 
I was informed in Canna that if kelp keeps its present price Mr. MacDonald, 
of Clanranald, will make 6,000 pounds sterling by his kelp and Lord MacDon- 
ald no less a sum than 10,000 pounds." 

During the course of the late war kelp rose to 18, 20, and even 22 pounds per 
ton in consequence of the interruption to the importation of barilla, and the 
profits upon it during that period were enormous. The price has subsequently 
fallen, by degrees, to 5 guineas per ton, and the sale has latterly been heavy 
even at that rate. This was to be attributed at first to the superior quality 
of the Spanish barilla for the purposes of glass making and soap boiling, but 
more recently to the almost entire removal of the duty on muriate of soda, or 
common salt. The rock salt of Cheshire, which now bears an insignificant 
price, is submitted to a chemical process, by means of which the soda is sepa- 
rated from the muriatic acid, and this is found to answer so completely as a 
substitute for kelp (which is an impure carbonate of soda) that the great glass 
manufactories of Newcastle are supplied with soda thus prepared. 'So perni- 
cious, however, are the fumes of the muriatic acid gas which issue from the 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE XnSTITED STATES. 175 

soda works that vegetation is destroyed to a considerable distance, and the pro- 
prietors have been compelled to purchase the ground in their immediate 
neighborhood. 

The number of people that find occupation in the manufacture of kelp is so 
great that a permanent interruption to the trade would be a serious evil. In 
the Orkney Islands alone the number of hands, according to Mr. Peterkin, who 
has obligingly furnished me with information on this subject, probably amounts 
to 20,000, for all the rural population is more or less employed in the business 
during the kelp season. Such being the case, it is gratifying to find that that 
public-spirited body, the Highland Society, is exerting itself to procure exact 
information about the qualities of kelp as a manure. 

The rise and decline of the kelp industry in Scotland brought 
about great interest and gave rise to a series of prize essays and other 
papers published in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricul- 
tural Society of Scotland. Two prize essays on kelp were published 
by the society in Volume I of the second series, whose title-page bears 
the date of 1816. The first, by Eev. Dr. Walker, was delivered to the 
society in 1788, and contains much material on the rise and progress 
of the manufacture of kelp in the north of Scotland and is a valuable 
source of information of the period from 1720 to 1788. The second, 
" On the art of making kelp and of increasing the growth of marine 
plants from which it is made," b} 7 Angus Beaton, also gives much 
material on the subjects indicated, while the third article is a re- 
print of " Observations on kelp," by Eobert Jameson in his Out- 
line of the Mineralogy of the Shetland Islands and of the Island of 
Arran, published in 1798. In Volume V of the second series is a 
" Second report by the committee of the Highland Society upon the 
manufacture of kelp" (made in 1817), an "Essay upon the com- 
parative value of kelp and barilla," by Andrew Fyfe. Other articles 
followed, until in Volume II of The Quarterly Journal of Agricul- 
ture (November, 1829-February, 1831, on p. 927) is a discussion of 
the then recent orders in council reducing the duty on barilla which 
so disastrously affected the kelp industry m the British Isles. 

The effects in the highlands and islands of Scotland of the di- 
minishing of the kelp industry, together with other causes, led to the 
great destitution of food of the years 1836 and 1837, and is ably dis- 
cussed by Alexander Macgregor in the Quarterly Journal of Agri- 
culture for 1838-39 (Vol. IX; pp. 159-199). 

The conflict in France between the gatherers of seaweed for ma- 
nure and those burning it for the ash to be used for soap and glass 
making, alluded to previously, was adjusted so far as possible by 
Colbert in an ordinance of 1681, reserving the living seaweeds (Goe- 
mon) to those living adjacent and leaving the seaweed cast ashore to 
those obtaining it first, to dispose of as they desired. The royal de- 
crees of 1751 and 1772 authorized burning only during three months 
of the year. These various decrees simply emphasize the importance 
of the seaweed suppty of northwestern France, but the subject is 
capable of more extensive treatment than seems necessary in this 
place. 

The kelp manufacture as a supply of soda for soap and glass 
waned under the influences of the improved sources of obtaining this 
from Barilla and from salt. As a supply of potash for fertilizer it 
was essentially driven out by the introduct/on of guano and the 
discovery of the potash deposits at Stassfurt in northern Germany. 



176 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

POTASH FEOM KELP. 

Balch (1909) has investigated the composition of the bulb kelps, 
Nereocystis luetkeana and Pelagophycus porra of the western coast 
of the United States, and finds them rich in potassium salts. He 
estimates that — 

One ton of thoroughly air-dried kelp, in addition to valuable by-products, 
volatile and nonvolatile, may be depended on for a minimum yield of 500 pounds 
of pure potassium salts, and 3 pounds of iodine. These are worth above $20 in 
the markets, and the presumptive value of the several by-products should war- 
rant the statement that the average yield of a ton of air-dried kelp may be stated 
at $25, an average which is far more likely to be exceeded, especially as regards 
iodine, than reduced in quantity or value. 

IODINE FROM KELP. 

After the separation of iodine in 1812 from the ash of " kelp " 
until compartively recently kelp ash or kelp liquor has been the only, 
or at least the main, source of iodine. Kelp burning proceeded in 
Scotland, in Ireland, in France, and in Norway to supply this impor- 
tant product. Kelp burning proceeded in Scotland in much the same 
fashion that it did when soda was the important product. We find, 
e. g., in the Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society 
of Scotland (volume with title-page date 1849) a prize essay by 
Donald M'Crummen, "On the manufacture of kelp" (pp. 75-78), 
which deals with this matter, and again (in the volume whose title- 
page bears the date of 1853, pp. 448-456) articles — one on the analy- 
ses of the ash of three of the seaweeds (one of them Laminaria digi- 
tata, inch L. hyperborea) by John Yeats, and another by Dr. Thomas 
Anderson, entitled " Observations on the possibility of improving 
the quality of kelp," in which the matter of iodine is the important 
substance. The methods of burning the seaweeds used so as not to 
lose most of the iodine, as was the case when the old method used 
for soda production was superseded and even a new method of 
obtaining it from the liquor coming from the plants, was proposed 
and to some extent adopted. The species of seaweed, too, and the 
season of collection make a difference in the product. Most, if not 
all, seaweeds contain iodine. Certain of the more delicate red sea- 
weeds, when prepared as specimens on white paper containing 
starch, show this by turning the paper blue where liquid exudes from 
them. The principal seaweeds used in the preparation of iodine com- 
mercially have been the rockweeds or Fucaceae and the digitate 
species of Laminaria. The latter are found to contain the greater 
percentage. It seems to be true that the older plants contain more 
than the younger plants and those growing in deeper water more 
than those living in the littoral zone. The iodine-rich kelps are to 
be distinguished by their darker color, so far as known, turning black 
on drying. They, or at least some of them, have a peculiar pene- 
trating odor when fresh. Foslie (1884, p. 53), speaking of the 
Laminaria hyperborea of the Norwegian coast, says that there are 
three iodine-manufacturing establishments on the coast between 
Trondheim and Bergen which make use annually of several hundred 
tons of ashes which consist, in the main, of burned plants of this 
species. There seems to be reason for believing that certain non- 
European species of Laminariaceae contain even a greater proportion 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 177 

of iodine than the European. Hooker (1845, p. 153) states that 
Lessonia nigrescens of Cape Horn and the Falkland Islands and 
other Antarctic algae are shown by analyses to be peculiarly rich 
in iodine. There is a considerable manufacture of iodine in Japan 
(cf. Hugh M. Smith, 1905, p. 161) in the Island of Hokkaido. It is 
obtained from about 10 species of the Laminariaceae distributed 
through three or four genera. Several are species of Laminaria, 
and there are species of Eisenia and Ecklonia, The output of crude 
iodine in Hokkaido in 1901 was 12,405 poimds, valued at $15,866. 

The more recent manufacture of iodine from Chile saltpeter, how- 
ever, has made the manufacture of iodine from kelp unremunerative. 
However, the Chilean supplies are not inexhaustible, and it may not 
be long before a return to the kelp and seaweed supply may be 
warranted. 

OTHER PRODUCTS OF LAMINARIACEAE. 

Besides the soda, potash, and iodine, there are other products of 
kelps, viz, algin, cellulose, dextrine, and mannite. Algin seems the 
most important. It was discovered by Stanford, and his account of 
it and its applications is adapted by Hugh H. Smith (1905, pp. 
177-179) in his report on the " Utilization of Seaweeds in the United 
States." It is obtained from Laminaria digitata as a neutral, glazy, 
colorless fluid. When carefully filtered and precipitated by hydro- 
chloric or sulphuric acid, the alginic acid is obtained, which, after 
being washed, may be compressed into a cake resembling new cheese. 
The alginic acid may, upon being dissolved in sodium carbonate, form 
a soluble sodium alginate used in a 2 per cent solution. 

Algin and its salts appear to have a wide range of usefulness. 
Smith (loc. cit., p. 179) says: 

Algin and its salts appear to have a wide range of usefulness. Some of these 
are indicated by Stanford (1. c). Thus, as a sizing for fabrics, algin supplies 
the great desiderata of a soluble gum with marked elastic and flexible prop- 
erties, and of a soluble substitute for albumen which can easily be rendered 
insoluble and used as a mordant. As a stiffening and filling agent, algin has 
an advantage over starch in that it fills the cloth better, is tougher and more 
elastic, is transparent when dry, and is not acted on by acids. It imparts to 
fabrics a thick, elastic, clothy feeling without the stiffness caused by starch. 
An additional advantage, possessed by no other gum, is that algin becomes 
insoluble in the presence of dilute acids; and, furthermore, no other gum has 
anything like the viscosity of algin; hence it is the most economical for making 
solutions for sizing. The alginate of aluminum in caustic soda makes a stiff 
dressing; in the crude unbleached state it is a cheap dressing for dark goods, 
and in the colorless state for finer fabrics. A glossy, insoluble surface results 
from the use of ammoniated alginate of aluminum. 

Sodium alginate has been used for fixing mordants, and is a substitute for 
the various salts now used in precipitating mordants previous to the dyeing of 
cottons and yarns. For resolving and preventing the incrustation of boilers, 
sodium alginate has been pronounced by experts to be one of the best prepara- 
tions, precipitating the lime salts in a state in which they can readily be 
blown off. 

The charcoal formed during the manufacture of iodine by the wet process, 
when combined with algin, has been largely used for covering boilers, under the 
name of carbon cement. Three per cent of algin is sufficient to make the char- 
coal cohere, and a cool, light, and efficient covering is formed. 

As an article of food algin has been suggested for thickening soups and pud- 
dings, and as a substitute for gum arabic in making lozenges and jujubes. It 
contains about the same percentage of nitrogen as Dutch cheese, and has a 
faint, pleasant flavor best expressed by " marine." In pharmacy it has a place 
in the emulsifying of oils, as an excipient in pills, and for refining spirits. 

20827°— S. Doc. 190, 02-2 12 



178 FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The dried stipes of certain species of Laminaria, particularly of L. hyper- 
oorea, are used on the coasts of France and Norway for fuel, and those of 
certain of the digitate Laminariae are, according to Farlow (1876, p. 717), 
used by surgical-instrument makers in the manufacture of sponge tents. 
Agarum is said by de la Pylaie (1825, p. 177) to have been used on the Siberian 
coast as an antiscorbutic. Greville (1830, p. xx) relates that " the stems 
of a plant of the family Laminariaceae are sold in the shops and chewed by 
the inhabitants of South America wherever goiter is prevalent. * * * This 
remedy is termed by them Palo Coto (literally, goiter-stick). 

Paper has been made of, or with the assistance of, the cellulose of 
members of this family. Knife blades are forced into the stipes of 
certain species of kelps when fresh, and when dried are thus fixed 
firmly in a hard, tough handle which, contracting in drying, gives a 
roughness and the appearance of staghorn. Greville (1830, p. 29) 
quotes Dr. Neill as saying that this is done in Scotland with stipes 
of Laminaria digitata, and Hooker (1845, p. 152) says the same thing 
is done in South America by the Gauchoes with stipes of the Les- 
soneae. In Japan, according to Yendo (1902, pp. 8 and 9), Lami- 
naria radicosa and Eisenia bicyclis are used along with Sargassum, 
one of the Fucaceae, for festoons and decorations, especially on New 
Year's Day. 

In southern California the larger kelps, particularly Pelagophy- 
cus porra and Macrocystis, are tanned by a certain process and made 
into canes and various fancy objects and sold to tourists in consider- 
able number as curios. 

William Albert Setchell, 
Professor of Botany, University of California, 
Special Agent United States Department of Agriculture. 



Appendix L. 
ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC NOTES ON PUGET SOUND KELPS. 



The word "kelp" is used in several different senses. By many 
persons it is used to designate all large blackish seaweeds. During 
the early part of the nineteenth century, when the kelp industry was 
flourishing in Ireland and Scotland, the term was used for the cal- 
cined ashes of seaweeds that found certain uses in the manufacture 
of glass and of potash fertilizers. At the same time the word was 
used to a certain extent to include all seaweeds from which these 
ashes were obtained. In the Puget Sound region at the present time 
navigators commonly use the term kelp to refer to the largest and 
most abundant brown seaweed of the region — the bladder kelp, 
Nereocystis luetkeana. The most definite sense in which the word is 
used is to include all plants belonging to one of the families of brown 
seaweeds — the Laminariaceae. It is in this sense that the word will 
be used in this paper. 

" Seaweeds " is a general term for marine algae. Algae are rela- 
tively simple plants, lacking true differentiation into root, stem, and 
leaf, and being reproduced by spores, never by seeds. A spore is a 
simple reproductive body, usually consisting of a single cell and 
differing from a seed in not containing a ready-formed embryo plant. 
The algae are distinguished from their nearest relatives, the fungi, by 
the presence in their cells of chlorophyll, or " leaf green," which 
enables them to manufacture carbohydrate food, such as sugars and 
starches, from the two raw materials, water and carbon dioxide. 
This green substance gives the characteristic color to the green algae 
(Chlorophyceae). In the blue-green algae (Cyanophyceae) the chlo- 
rophyll is mixed with a bluish pigment. In the brown algae (Phaeo- 
phyceae) the green is almost completely masked by a brown pigment, 
and in the red algae (Rhodophyceae) by a red pigment. The real 
basis for the division of the algae into these four subclasses is cer- 
tain differences in their method of reproduction, but the colors — ■ 
green, brown, and red — correspond so closely with these differences 
in reproduction that it is usually, though not always, possible to 
assign an algae to its proper subclass merely on the basis of color. 
The pigment disappears quickly from some of the brown algae (e. g., 
Desmarestia) when they are taken from the water and exposed to the 
sunlight, leaving the green. In some of the red algae (e. g., Rhody- 
menia) spots are found when the plants are first removed from the 
water where they have no red pigment at all, but show only the green 
color. 

The simplest kelps are leaflike in form, but are much larger 
than the leaves of ordinary plants. All kelps are leaflike when they 
are very young, but by a considerable differentiation of tissues many 

179 



180 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

of the species become, in maturity, rather complex in external ap- 
pearance as well as internal structure. In the Puget Sound region 
(using the term " Puget Sound " to include the entire region from 
Cape Flattery on the west to Point Roberts on the north and 
Olympia on the south) the kelps vary in length from less than 2 
feet in the case of the treelike sea palm (Postelsia) to a little 
over 70 feet in the case of the bladder kelp (Nereocystis). The leaf- 
like forms vary in length from a little less than 3 feet in the case 
of Pleurophycus to 10 or 12 feet in the case of Laminaria. Mac- 
Millan reports Nereocystis as reaching a length of 100 feet at Port 
Renfrew, British Columbia. Setchell reports that he paced a Nereo- 
cystis plant at Carmel Bay, Monterey County, Cal., and found its 
length to be " 41 good paces." This should be about 123 feet. Mer- 
tens, in 1829, reported the length of the stipe of a bladder-kelp 
plant in Alaska to be 45 fathoms (270 feet). A specimen collected 
by S. M. Zeller at the Puget Sound Marine Station in July, 1911, 
measured 72 feet. The author estimated many kelp in the vicinity 
of Friday Harbor during the summers of 1908 and 1910, and in 
various parts of Puget Sound in 1911, by pacing them. In no case 
did he find one exceeding 70 feet, while average specimens were 
usually found to be from 40 to 50 feet. Macrocystis is commonly 
said to produce the longest stems known in the plant kingdom, 
measurements of 1,000 feet having been reported. The longest speci- 
men of this plant measured by the author was 40 feet. Saunders 
says that he has measured many fully developed specimens of this 
plant on the coasts of California, Oregon, Washington, and Alaska 
and has never found one exceeding 70 feet in length. 

Various ecological factors determine the distribution of the dif- 
ferent kelps. The most important of these factors are light, depth 
of water, the rise and fall of the tide, wave impact, tidal currents, 
and opportunity for anchorage. It is to be borne in mind that 
all of these factors have more or less influence and no one of them 
alone determines the distribution in any case. 

The necessity of having light to enable them to manufacture 
carbohydrate food seems to almost completely bar the kelps of the 
Puget Sound region from water that exceeds 16 fathoms in depth, 
and to make them rare in water deeper than 8 or 10 fathoms. This 
statement has reference to kelps growing on the bottom and not 
provided with floats to keep any part of the plant near the surface 
of the water. Plants of this kind are much more common just 
above and just below low tide than at any other depth. Such kelps 
as Nereocystis and Macrocystis, being provided with floats that keep 
their fronds near the surface of the water, are dependent upon the 
light factor at the bottom of the water only when they are very 
young. These two kelps are quite commonly found in water from 
3 to 5 fathoms deep — sometimes in 6 fathoms or more of water. 

The rise and fall of the tide determines the position in which 
several of the kelps grow. Postelsia (the sea palm), Hedophyllum, 
and Pleurophycus are examples of this. Wave impact, however, is 
also a factor in the distribution of all of these, for they are con- 
fined to situations where the waves are rather violent. Pleurophycus 
is sublittoral, while Postelsia and Hedophyllum are littoral. Postel- 
sia is confined to areas of exceptionally heavy surge. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 181 

Nereocystis is an example of a plant never found growing in quiet 
water. It is confined to situations where it is subjected to strong 
tidal currents. Submerged plants must get their oxygen for respira- 
tion and their carbon dioxide for the manufacture of carbohydrate 
food from the air in the water. The demand for these gases is large 
in the case of these rapidly growing kelps, and there is, of course, 
much more air in water disturbed by wind or tidal currents than in 
quiet water. 

All of the kelps are attached to some solid object, such as rocks, 
stones, shells, piling, and logs, by means of a more or less differen- 
tiated holdfast. In some cases (e. g., Cymathaere) this holdfast is a 
mere disk. In other cases (e.g., Laminaria and Nereocystis) the 
holdfast is larger and is much branched. Many of the kelps that 
grow in the littoral and upper sublittoral zones are attached to the 
solid rock of the shore. This is the case with Postelsia, Hedophyllum, 
and Pleurophycus. Laminaria and Costaria are frequently found on 
piling. Kelps growing in deeper water are quite commonly attached 
to small stones or to old shells. Laminaria and Agarum are examples 
of this. Nereocystis is usually attached to heavier stones or large 
pieces of rock. Kelps are not found on muddy or sandy bottom 
unless there are firm objects there to which they can attach them- 
selves. Blind Bay, on the north shore of Shaw Island in the San 
Juan group, has a very heavy growth of Laminaria. Agarum, and 
other leaflike kelps on a mud bottom, the anchorage being principally 
on the shells of dead bivalves. The water in this bay is quiet, so that 
the plants can keep their position bj T anchorage to comparatively 
small objects. 

Kelps, as already stated, are reproduced by spores. These spores 
are microscopic in size and are usually composed of a single cell. 
They are zoospores, or " swimming " spores. It is comparatively 
easy to tell when a large kelp is " fruiting " by merely examining the 
surface of its fronds with the naked eye. If it is " in fruit " irregular 
patches, differing in color from the rest of the frond, will be readily 
seen. On feeling of these soral patches it will be found that they are 
somewhat thicker and firmer than the other parts of the frond. In 
these soral patches there are numerous sporangia, and in these 
sporangia the spores are developed. These spores swim about for a 
short time by means of cilia, and, when they find a favorable place, 
settle down and quickly develop into 3^oung kelps. The growing 
region of all of the kelps discussed in this paper is at the place where 
the stipe and frond join. The fronds, then, increase in length at the 
base, and the same region of meristematic tissue that contributes to 
this basal growth of the leaflike part of the plant extends also to the 
upper part of the stipe, and there causes the lengthening of the stem- 
like portion. 

There are 12 genera of kelps found in this region in sufficient abun- 
dance to merit discussion in this paper. They are Laminaria, Hedo- 
phyllum, Cymathaere, Agarum, Pleurophycus, Alaria, Costaria, Pos- 
telsia, Pterygophora, Egregia, Macrocystis, and Nereocystis. So far 
as commercial possibilities are concerned, Nereocystis is much the 
most important of these because of its great size, its abundance, and 
the ease with which it may be harvested in large quantities by labor- 
saving devices. Five other genera of kelps (Lessonia, Chorda, 



182 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Eisenia, Dictyoneuron, and Thalassiophyllum) have been found by 
MacMillan on the southern shore of Vancouver Island, and it is pos- 
sible that they may be found occasionally on our own shores. Several 
genera of algae not included among the kelps also deserve mention. 
Two of these genera (Fucus, commonly called rockweed, and Desmar- 
estia) belong to the brown algae. Four others (Ulva, called sea let- 
tuce; Monostroma, Enteromorpha, and Codium) are green algae. 
The last is Rhodymenia, a red alga. It is called dulse in some 
European countries. 

The plants of the genus Laminaria consist of a distinct stipe with 
a branched holdfast and a broad leaflike frond without a midrib. 
The largest ones found in the Puget Sound region are about 10 feet 
long and perhaps 2 feet in width. Saunders reports Laminaria sac- 
charina as reaching a length of 26 feet in Alaska. In Japan Lami- 
naria plants are reported to reach a length of 100 feet. All of the 
Laminarias contain mucilage ducts and their surfaces are quite 
mucilaginous. The Laminarias are found mostly below low tide, 
although on rocky shores some of the plants are exposed at extreme 
low tide. They are often dredged in water up to 15 fathoms deep. 

Two species of this genus are very common in the Puget Sound 
region, Laminaria saccharina and Laminaria bullata. L. bullata 
is darker in color and firmer in texture and thicker than L. saccharina. 
Its surface is also covered with large symmetrical " dents " called 
bullae, while that of L. saccharina is more regular. L. bullata is 
peculiar to the Pacific coast of North America. L. saccharina is 
found in the North Atlantic as well as in the Pacific. 

There are several forms of each of these species, but they are based 
on minor differences and are not important for the purposes of this 
paper. These two species are common throughout the San Juan 
Islands and are widely distributed in the Puget Sound region. 
They are quite commonly anchored to stones, although sometimes 
old clamshells furnish anchorage for them, and they are found to a 
considerable extent on piling and on timbers of floating docks. Like 
other kelps they are absent from sandy bottoms except where stones, 
shells, or other firm objects furnish anchorage. 

A third species, L. anderso?iii, is found on the wave-swept shores 
near Cape Flattery, and has also been found by Gardner on rocks 
in the upper portions of the sublittoral zone on the west coast of 
Whidby Island. 

The term " devil's apron " is applied to several of the large leaf- 
like brown algae, especially those of somewhat blackish appearance. 
It is perhaps most commonly used to refer to Laminaria bullata. 

The genus Hedophyllum differs from the genus Laminaria in 
having no stipe. The fronds are sessile. Like those of Laminaria 
they have no midrib. They are frequently bullate at the base. Their 
fronds do not reach so great a length as those of Laminaria, 2-J feet 
being the extreme length observed by the writer. The plants of this 
length were found on rocks in the littoral zone near Neah Bay, 
where they are so abundant as to form almost the entire covering 
of the rocks in places. It is also common, although smaller, on the 
west shore of San Juan Island and on Turn Rock, near Friday 
Harbor. This genus does not usually anchor itself to small stones, 
but prefers the solid rock. Only one species of this genus is common 
in the Puget Sound region. This is H. sessile. This species is 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 183 

peculiar to the Pacific coast of North America. H. subsessile was 
reported by Saunders as being found in Puget Sound, but the writer 
has not seen it. 

Hedophyllum fronds do not spread out flat, but tend to form a 
head somewhat resembling a head of cabbage. This appearance is 
much more evident in the plants of comparatively quiet places, such 
as Turn Rock, than it is in the plants of the Neah Bay region and of 
the west shore of San Juan Island, where the wave impact is heavier. 

The plants belonging to the genus Cymathaere are usually clean, 
trim-looking plants attaching themselves to rocks and small stones 
in the sublittoral zone. They are sometimes dredged in 2 or 3 
fathoms of water. The plant is leaflike in form. The stipe is only 
a few inches long, but the frond sometimes reaches a length of 6 or 8 
feet. They are attached by a disklike holdfast. There is no midrib, 
but a triplicate longitudinal fold extends through the middle of the 
frond. This characteristic gives the specific name triplicata to the 
single species found in this region. The plants are of lighter color 
than those of any other genus of kelps ot this region. At least at 
the base they are thicker and firmer in texture than the other leaflike 
kelps. From the middle upward the frond is sometimes thinner, 
and its margins are then wavy. This characteristic seems to be more 
common in plants exposed to rather violent waves, while those that 
grow in quieter water are of more nearly uniform thickness through- 
out and do not have wavy margins. The writer has found Cy- 
mathaere triplicata in the greatest abundance at Neah Bay and at 
Kanaka Bay. In both of these places the wave impact is violent, 
and the plants are mostly of the thin type. In the channel between 
Turn Island and San Juan Island, near Friday Harbor, plants of 
this species are dredged in large numbers in 2 or 3 fathoms of water. 
These plants are attached to small stones on a sandy bottom and 
are of the thick type. Cymathaere triplicata is a gregarious species. 
It is peculiar to the Pacific coast of North America. 

The genus Agarum is represented by a single species {A. fm- 
hriatum) in the Puget Sound region. This species is leaflike in 
form, but differs from the three preceding genera in having a midrib. 
The plants are somewhat shorter than those of Laminaria. The 
stipe is very short, and both the stipe and the frond are fimbriate on 
the edges. This species has a branched holdfast similar to that of 
Laminaria and Hedophyllum. It is commonly found growing with 
Laminaria saccharina and L. bullata. Agarum fimbriatum is not 
found commonly outside of the Puget Sound region. 

Pleurophycus gardneri is a dark-colored, leaflike kelp. It grows 
in the upper sublittoral zone and is confined to regions of rather 
violent waves. The upper end of the frond is usually somewhat torn 
by being beaten against the rocks upon which it grows. The hold- 
fast is branched. The plants do not usually reach a length of more 
than 30 inches. The stipe is longer in proportion to the length of 
the frond than it is in Agarum. There is apparently a very broad 
midrib, but this is not a true midrib. It is really a very broad, shal- 
low furrow on one side of the frond with a correspondingly promi- 
nent flat ridge on the other side. The production of spores is confined 
to this furrow. The frond, outside of this furrow, is lunglike in tex- 
ture. This plant occurs in great abundance at Neah Bay and a few 
specimens have been found on Long Island and on the coast of San 



184 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

Juan Island at Kanaka Bay. There is one species of this genus in 
the Puget Sound region, and it is found only on the Pacific coast of 
North America. 

The plants of the genus Alaria differ from the other leaflike 
kelps of the region in the fact that the sporangia do not form soral 
patches in the frond, but are confined to special leaflike sporophylls 
situated on the stipe below the base of the frond. These sporophylls 
vary from a few inches up to more than a foot in length. There are 
sometimes as many as 65 of them on a single plant, although the 
number is usually much smaller. Alaria valida, a very common 
species in Puget Sound, has a ribbonlike frond reaching a length of 
10 or 12 feet, with a very prominent midrib and wavy edges. It is 
found in the sublittoral zone. An Alaria found in great abundance 
at Neah Bay has a frond that is lunglike in texture, like that of 
Pleurophycus gardneri. MacMillan reports Alaria as reaching a 
length of 50 feet at Port Renfrew, British Columbia. 

Gostaria turneri is the only representative of the genus in Puget 
Sound. It is found in much the same habitat as Agarum and the 
Laminarias. It is sometimes found growing on the holdfast of 
Nereocystis. It has a branched holdfast, a rather short stipe, and a 
broad frond with five ribs. Three of these ribs are prominent on one 
face of the frond and two on the other. Where a rib is prominent 
on one face of the frond there is a corresponding depression on the 
other face. The frond does not present a plane surface between 
the ribs. Perhaps the term " shirred " as it is used in sewing ex- 
presses its condition best. The plant is of about the same size as 
Agarum fimbriatum. It does not show this shirred appearance when 
young. 

The " sea palm," Postelsia palmaeformis, grows in dense clusters 
in the littoral zone on rocks that, are exposed to waves of unusual 
violence. The plants are less than 2 feet high and consist of a 
hollow rubbery stipe of very great flexibility crowned by a dense 
cluster of slender, flattened, longitudinally corrugated, leaflike 
fronds. The writer has found this species only on Tattoosh Island and 
on the rocks of the mainland near Cape Flattery. It does not extend 
around to the quieter waters of Neah Bay as most of the algae of 
that vicinity do. This plant is not found north of Puget Sound. It 
is found southward as far as Point Sur on the California coast. 

The genus Pterygophora is represented by a single species, P. cali- 
fornica. The plant consists of a rather massive stipe anchored by a 
powerful holdfast and bearing at its summit a number of fronds from 
1 to 2 feet in length. One of the fronds is terminal while the others 
are pinnately arranged on the edges of the stipe, which is somewhat 
flattened at its top. The writer found stipes of this plant at Neah 
Bay reaching a length of 7 feet and a diameter of 2 inches. The 
stipes are distinctly woody when they first come from the water and 
are horny when dry. They are perennial and show distinct rings in 
the stem, looking to the naked eye very much like the annual rings 
of dicotyledonous and gymnosperm trees. Under the microscope, 
however, they differ quite materially from these. These plants are 
quite commonly cast up on the beach at Neah Bay. The writer has 
not seen them elsewhere in this region. 

Egregia menziesii is sometimes called the feather-boa kelp from 
its fancied resemblance to a feather boa. It is found in the lower 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 185 

littoral and upper sublittoral zones in regions of violent wave im- 
pact. It attaches itself to rocks by a powerful holdfast, from which 
as many as 25 branches arise. These branches reach as much as 20 
feet in length. Each one is flattened, and is stout and leathery. It 
has two kinds of outgrowths along its edges — slender sporophylls, 
reaching a length of 2 or 3 inches; and hollow floats of about the 
same length, with a thickness of perhaps three-quarters of an inch. 
This plnnt is found sparingly at Kanaka Bay, but is very abundant 
along with Nereocystis and Macrocystis at Neah Bay. There is only 
one species of this genus in the Puget Sound region. 

Macrocystis pyrifera grows in considerable abundance in the vi- 
cinity of Cape Flattery and Neah Bay. The writer found pieces of 
this plant floating at Port Crescent. The stipe is slender and rope- 
like. Several stipes arise from a single large branched holdfast. 
Along the stipe appear the flat wrinkled fronds, each with a hollow 
float, or pneumatocyst, at its base. These keep the upper part of 
the mature plant floating on the surface of the water. This plant 
usually grows a little closer to the shore than Nereocystis does, 
although both it and Egregia are somewhat mixed with the beds of 
Nereocystis at Neah Bay. 

Nereocystis luetkeana is the most abundant kelp of the Puget 
Sound region. The huge size of the individual plants, the fact that 
its bladderlike float is always at the surface of the water, where it 
can be seen, and the fact that it forms dense beds covering such large 
areas, bring it to the attention of every observer who crosses the 
waters of Puget Sound. It attaches itself to stones, and reaches its 
best development in water that is 8 or 10 fathoms deep. The hold- 
fast is large, and from it there extends upward a cordlike stipe about 
half an inch in diameter, gradually enlarging into a hollow portion, 
known as the pneumatocyst, which terminates in a hollow bulb, upon 
which are borne two tufts of slender ribbonlike fronds, sometimes 
attaining a length of 20 feet or more. The length of this plant is 
discussed earlier in this paper. The word " kelp," as used by the 
seafaring men of the Puget Sound region, means this one species, 
the other large brown algae being referred to as seaweeds. It is also 
called bladder kelp and sea-otter's cabbage. At high tide the pneu- 
matocyst stands straight up, with its knoblike end projecting a little 
from the water. At low tide several feet of the pneumatocyst lies 
on the surface of the water. In either position the fronds are always 
entirely submerged in the water, and float out parallel to its sur- 
face. The largest beds of this plant are found on exposed shores, 
where violent wave action accompanies strong tidal currents, but 
narrower beds of almost equal density are found on rocky ledges 
along shores swept by strong tidal currents. Considerable areas are 
sometimes found on ledges in open water. Such a patch of kelp is 
found west of Browns Island, near Friday Harbor. A larger bed 
is found on Partridge Reef, west of Whidby Island. 

Nereocystic, like the other Laminariaceae, shows a considerable dif- 
ferentiation of tissues. The stipe shows cortex, central cylinder, sieve 
tubes, and a cambial layer, from which increase in thickness takes 
place. In the pneumatocyst area there are two cambial layers, an 
inner one and an outer one. The region of elongation in this plant 
extends over the pneumatocyst and the bases of the fronds. During 
the summer of 1911, at the Puget Sound marine station, S. M. Zeller 



186 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

removed the fronds from several Nereocystis plants, and in every 
case the plant soon died. Possibly this means that the fronds are 
similar to the leaves of higher plants in performing the functions of 
respiration and photosynthesis. This view is consistent with the 
presence of sieve tubes in the stem, which are evidently for the trans- 
fer of manufactured food downward. It thus seems that there is 
an amount of localization of function in this plant that is compa- 
rable with the condition in seed plants. 

This plant is reproduced by spores developed in unilocular spor- 
angia. These sporangia, together with sterile processes, called para- 
physes, form soral patches upon the fronds. These soral patches are 
common on the fronds in June, July, and August. Zeller has noted, 
in an unpublished paper, that these patches fall out when the sporea 
in them are mature. As in the case of the other kelps the soral 
patches are readily found by the fact that they differ from the other 
parts of the frond in color, thickness, and texture. They are readily 
seen on the fronds in the water as one passes near them in a small 
boat. Judging from the large extent of the soral patches, it is likely 
that spores are produced in enormous numbers. 

It seems probable that the spores settle down soon after they are 
discharged from the sporangia and begin at once to develop into 
new plants. Frye has observed by means of a glass-bottomed bucket 
that young plants a few feet in length are seen on the bottom in 
March. The plant seems to be an annual, the new crop starting before 
the old one disappears. Bladder-kelp plants begin to drift loose 
in September and when winter comes the beds are entirely broken 
up. In case any economic use is made of the bladder kelp it is 
evident that it should be harvested in the latter part of the summer, 
beginning perhaps July 15. It can be harvested at that time of the 
year without interfering in any way with the next year's crop. 

In order to arrive at an estimate of the tonnage of bladder kelp 
available in Puget Sound waters the author has used the following 
method: A light wooden frame 4 feet square was made, and this 
was laid down upon the kelp bed and the number of plants whose 
floats were included within the area of 16 square feet was thus 
determined. This was done repeatedly in different beds and the 
results were averaged. It was found in this way that in the beds 
of maximum density there are 1.25 plants to the square foot. Fairly 
dense kelp beds vary from this down to 0.75 plant per square foot. 
Tn the thicker beds the plants do not usually grow singly, but are 
found in groups of from 5 to 25, in which they are frequently much 
twisted together and entangled. Occasionally very thin beds of 
kelp are found. In some of them the writer has estimated as low 
as 0.025 plant per square foot. 

Having arrived at an estimate of the number of kelp per unit of 
area in various beds, the next step was to weigh some plants. 
Mature specimens from average beds were found to weigh from 18 
to 35 pounds. In the very dense beds nearly all of the kelp will 
approximate 30 pounds. These are the weights as taken in most 
cases within an hour or two after the plants were taken from the 
water. In the computations used in making the estimates in this 
paper, 30 pounds per kelp was the weight used for the very dense 
beds and 20 pounds for the lightest beds. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 187 

Being able now to estimate the number of kelp per unit of area 
and the weight of the individual plants, there remained only to 
determine the length and width of a bed in order to estimate the 
number of tons of kelp in it. 

By the method here outlined the following estimate of the amount 
of bladder kelp (Nereocystis luetkeana) in the Puget Sound region 
was made: 

Tons. 

1. Smiths Island 100.000 

2. American shore of the Strait of Juan de Fuca 85, 000 

3. San Juan Island and small islands near its shore 10, 000 

4. Other islands of the San Juan group 9,000 

5. Admiralty Head to Point Roberts 5,000 

6. Puget Sound from Port Townsend to Olympia 1,000 

210, 000 

Persons who have observed the kelp beds in this region for years 
uniformly report that there is but little variation in the kelp crop 
from year to year. It is evident that in ease the crop were harvested 
at the proper time each year the yield would be practically the 
same year after year. 

Excepting in the vicinity of Neah Bay the kelp beds are what the 
foresters would call a " pure stand." That is, they are unmixed with 
any other plants that are of sufficient size to be of any importance. 
The fact that the bladder kelp has successfully solved its own prob- 
lem of adapting itself to its environment has resulted in a host of 
smaller plants attaching themselves to the kelp in order to get the 
benefit of the advantageous situation in which it lives. The interest 
attaching to these is, however, wholly ecological and not economic. 
In case the kelp beds near Neah Bay were harvested for any purpose 
two other species, Macrocystis fyrifera and Egregia menziesii would 
be somewhat mixed with the material obtained. In some parts of 
the beds nearest the shore the combined quantity of these two species 
would probably about equal the quantity of bladder kelp that would 
be harvested with them. 

Fucus, commonly called " rockweed," is very common in nearly all 
parts of the Puget Sound region on rocks in the littoral zone. Fucus 
is not a kelp in the sense that that word is used in this paper. It is 
a brown alga, belonging to the family Fucaceae. It has sexually- 
produced spores, while those of the kelps are produced asexually. 

In Fucus plants there is no sharp distinction of stipe and frond. 
The base of the plant is almost cylindrical, but the transition from 
this to the flat part of the thallus is gradual. The plants are leathery 
and are anchored to rocks or other objects by a disklike holdfast. 
The plants are very mucilaginous. The spores are produced in 
minute cavities, opening upon the surface of the swollen tips of the 
plant. The opening of each cavity (conceptacle) is slightly elevated 
so the fruiting area has a somewhat pimply appearance. These 
plants are found at all seasons of the year, the crop seeming just as 
abundant in the winter as in the summer. Their growth is dense in 
places, forming a very thick, slippery covering on the rocks. Some 
Fucus plants of this region are narrow, while others are very broad. 
Some of them have long irregularly placed inflations near the tips 
and some lack these entirely. In some places the Fucus is very long 
and in others it is quite short. 



188 FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Desmarestia Ugulata, forma herbacea, is a brown alga, sometimes 
reaching a length of 8 or 10 feet and a width of from 12 to 16 inches, 
although it is usually much smaller than this. It is quite commonly 
dredged with Laminaria and other kelps. Large specimens are fre- 
quently found drifted on the beach at low tide. There is a distinct 
cordlike midrib, and a branch of this extends into each of the leaflike 
outgrowths that appear along the edge of the frond. The plants 
lose their brown color quickly when exposed to direct sunlight and 
become green. If they are placed in contact with other brown algae 
they cause them also to lose their color. The plants of this species 
have a very sour taste. 

Ulva, Monostroma, and Enteromorpha are conspicuous grass- 
green seaweeds, very common in the littoral zone. The thallus of 
Ulva is two cells thick, while that of Monostroma is only one cell 
thick. Enteromorpha has the form of a tube instead of a flat thallus. 
Plants of these genera usually vary from a few inches to about 2 feet 
in length, but at Neah Bay one species of Monostroma reaches a 
length of 7 feet. 

Codium mucronatum is a green alga. The thallus is cylindrical 
and much branched, the branches being of about the same size as a 
lead pencil. As a result of the repeated branching a dense mass of it 
of considerable weight grows from a single holdfast. It grows on 
rocks in the littoral zone where there are strong waves. It is found 
at several places in the San Juan Group, but the only considerable 
supply of it that the writer has seen is on Turn Island, near Friday 
Harbor. 

Rhodymenia pertusa is a red alga, attached to stones and shells 
by a holdfast from which the thallus gradually widens into a some- 
what leaflike form. The thallus is pierced by many holes. Among 
the San Juan Islands it is often dredged with the leaflike kelps. 

The seaweed industry has reached its highest development in 
Japan. Several causes combine to produce this result. The popula- 
tion is dense, the coast line long and irregular, and the interior is 
mountainous. These conditions bring many of the Japanese people 
into close contact with the seashore. The skill and patience of the 
people in preparing articles by hand has doubtless assisted in making 
the seaweed industry an important one in Japan. In 1904 the Japa- 
nese prepared over $2,000,000 worth of seaweed. Of this over $600,000 
worth was exported — principally to China and Korea. The writer 
has purchased at a Japanese store in Seattle eight different kinds of 
dried food prepared from seaweeds in Japan and shipped here for 
sale to the people of that country now resident in Seattle. The 
Japanese have not been content with harvesting the crop of seaweeds 
as they happen to grow, but they cultivate one species by sticking 
brush into the water for it to grow on. By this means they have in- 
creased the yield very largely. Seaweed in some form is a daily 
article of food in a large proportion of the Japanese homes. 

In the United States the industry amounts to only about $35,000 
and is confined almost entirely to a single State (Massachusetts) and 
to a single species {Chondrus crispus, Irish moss). 

As mentioned at the beginning of this paper, the seaweed industry 
was formerly an important one in Scotland and Ireland. The weeds 
in this case were used as a source of alkali for the manufacture of 
soap. The production of the seaweed ash from which this alkali was 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 189 

obtained was the basis of the livelihood of about 60,000 people of the 
poorer class. The industry declined considerably because of competi- 
tion with the production of alkali manufactured from common salt 
and seems to have been finally ruined in 1832 by the removal of the 
import duty on barilla. Barilla is the impure potash obtained from 
the ash of several species of flowering plants belonging to the genus 
Salsola. Several seaweeds are reported to be still used in Ireland as 
food. Some economic uses are also made of seaweeds in Hawaii. 

The Japanese find economic uses for more than 50 species of their 
seaweeds. Among the commodities made from them are food, plas- 
ter, glue, isinglass, iodine, and starch. They also use them for 
manure for their rice fields. Their method of manufacturing iodine 
was reported by Davison in 190G to be somewhat crude. He says 
that the Japanese Government was at that time supervising experi- 
ments on improving the yield. He gives the following figures for the 
export of potassium iodide for the years mentioned: 

1902 $7, 210 

1903 50, 585 

1904 133, 400 

The following genera of algae discussed in this paper and occurring 
in the Puget Sound region are known to have found important eco- 
nomic uses — Laminaria, Cymathaere, Alaria, Xereocystis, Fucus, 
Codium, Rhodymenia, Ulva, and Enteromorpha. In some cases the 
species used is the same one that is found here. In other cases it is a 
different species of the same genus. This does not purport to be a 
complete list of seaweeds having economic uses, but comprises merely 
a few selected for the purpose of showing what uses have been made 
of marine vegetation. 

Among the Japanese several species of Laminaria are of commer- 
cial importance, but they are not the same species that are found 
in our region. Two species especially are important articles of food 
among the Japanese, and considerable quantities of them are ex- 
ported to China for food. In 1891 Japan exported leaf Laminaria 
and cut Laminaria to the value of 607,000 yen, most of it going to 
China. The Japanese collect these plants by winding them up on 
poles and then cutting them loose at the base. They are spread upon 
the sand on the beach to dry and are then packed into bundles or 
bales for shipment. One kind is used in making confectionery and 
another kind is used in making tea and soup and is also cooked in 
other ways. Laminaria roll is a popular article of food among the 
Japanese. It is prepared by wrapping portions of fish in suitable 
sized pieces of dried Laminaria that have been boiled in fresh water 
and then boiling both together in dilute soy, soup, or milk. Another 
species of Laminaria is used by the Japanese for festoons at New 
Year's time. 

The food products prepared from Laminaria are called " kombu." 
The manufacture of kombu in Japan dates back to 1730, and there 
has been but little change in the method of manufacturing it since 
that time. The city of Osaka is the principal center for the manufac- 
ture of kombu. In 1903 it had 45 kombu factories, each employing 
from 10 to 30 men, women, and children. 

It is evident from the description and habitat of one plant used 
as a source of potash and iodine in Scotland in the early part of the 



190 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

nineteenth century that it was a species of Laminaria. It is men- 
tioned in the article as belonging to the genus Fucus, but this genus 
included at that time many plants that have since been assigned to 
other genera. 

Gymathaere triplicates was indentified by Dr. N. L. Gardner as 
the alga from which a bundle of dried food material purchased by 
the writer at a Japanese store in Seattle was prepared. Alaria is 
also used as an article of food in Japan. 

Several species of Fucus have been used in Ireland and Scotland 
as a source of alkali and iodine. The alkali was used as a fertilizer 
and in the manufacture of soap and glass. 

Codium mucronatum, the same species that occurs in the Puget 
Sound region, is used as an article of food by the Japanese. 

Ehodymenia, under the name of dulse, has been used for food in 
some European countries. Viva lactuca, Enter omovpha lima, and 
E. intestinalis are species common in Puget Sound which the Japa- 
nese have found useful as food. 

The Indians of the Pacific coast of North America have found 
several uses for the bladder kelp. The Alaska Indians formerly 
made fish lines of the long cordlike stipes by soaking them in fish 
oil and manipulating them to render them pliable. Bottles to con- 
tain the oil were made from the bulb and the adjacent hollow part of 
the stem by the same process. It is reported that the Indians in the 
San Juan Islands formerly prepared salt for use in food by spread- 
ing the fronds of this plant on clean logs and collecting the salt that 
effloresced on the surface of these fronds. The hollow part of the 
stipes was used by Alaska Indians as a worm in the process of dis- 
tilling " hoochenoo," a dark-colored poisonous drink. Headache is 
cured by the Indians in Sitka by placing the smaller end of one of 
these tubes in the ear and the other against a hot stone to generate 
steam. Indians at Neah Bay still use the split bulb of this plant for 
application in cases of caked breasts. It seems to be soothing and 
antiseptic. 

A patent is held by T. C. Frye and C. E. Magnuson, of Seattle, on 
a process of manufacturing from Nereocystis luetheana substitutes 
for preserved citron, orange peel, lemon peel, and other candied and 
preserved products. The writer has tasted products prepared by 
their process and has found them very palatable. 

It is learned that at Friday Harbor, Wash., and at Port Angeles, 
Wash., bladder-kelp plants have been cut up and used in gardens for 
fertilizer with excellent results. At Friday Harbor the method used 
was to collect the plants in the spring from the beach, where they 
had drifted in during the winter, and bury them in the garden at 
the time of planting seeds. At Port Angeles the plants are placed 
in the soil in the fall that they may decay during the winter. 

Considering the abundance of the seaweeds in Puget Sound in 
connection with the large use that the Japanese make of their sea- 
weeds, the question naturally arises as to whether there is a potential 
kelp industry here. As the first step toward answering the question 
we must consider how far our conditions are similar to those in 
Japan. The population in the Pacific Northwest is not over dense, 
and there is no congestion of population on the seashore. Americans 
certainly could not be advised to take up the slow and painstaking 
work of gathering seaweeds by hand and preparing them for food, 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 191 

and the Japanese who have come to our shores have shown no dis- 
position to do so. If a kelp industry is to be developed in the Puget 
Sound region, it must utilize a plant whose abundance and situation 
will permit it to be harvested in large quantities and by labor-saving 
devices. There is but one such plant in this region. This is the 
bladder kelp, Nereocystis luetkeana. The whole question of a pos- 
sible kelp industry in this region rests on whether the chemical 
analysis of this plant shows that it contains valuable constituents in 
such form and quantity that they can be profitably extracted on a 
commercial scale. 

A very thorough piece of work was done by J. Kendrick in Scot- 
land in 1898 on the use and value of seaweed as manure. His work 
was done on several species of Fucus and Laminaria. He found the 
amount of water in the fresh plants to be from TO to 83 per cent, and 
the amount of potash (K 2 0) to be from 0.92 to 1.(59 per cent. 
He suggests 1.24 per cent as an average amount of potash in the 
plants on which he worked. His conclusion is that both analysis 
and field experiments indicate that these - seaweeds are as good fer- 
tilizer for potatoes, weight for weight, as is dung. He finds, how- 
ever, from the field experiments that to get the best results the sea- 
weed should be supplemented with phosphates. Anyone interested 
in the kelp industry would do well to read in full his article in 
Volume X of the fifth series of The Transactions of the Highland 
and Agricultural Society of Scotland, pages 118-134. In his field 
experiments the fresh weeds were placed in the soil without any 
treatment. • He observes that seaweeds treated in this way should 
have at least a few weeks to decay before they can be useful to the 
plants. 

Thinking that some suggestion as to methods of harvesting and 
caring for this kelp may be of service to anyone considering this 
industry, the writer has given some attention to that subject. Dili- 
gent inquiry has been made among seamen of experience in this 
vicinity to secure such suggestions. 

From all of the suggestions and information received the follow- 
ing somewhat general ideas are offered. A large flat-bottomed barge 
propelled by a stern paddle wheel would be the best type of boat to 
use. A heavy cutting bar should be fitted across the front of this 
and so attached that it could be readily raised or lowered. The depth 
at which the kelp should be cut would probably vary from 6 to 10 
feet, depending upon the size of the kelp and the height of the tide. 
In the case of kelp weighing 30 pounds or more only about 3 or 4 
pounds of material will be left in the sea if the plant is cut off 10 
feet below the bulb. At high tide the cutting bar would have to run 
10 feet below the surface of the water in order to cut them at this 
point. At low water, however, the bar could run much higher, since 
the hollow part of the stem would then be lying on the surface. The 
fronds always remain near the surface so that they will be obtained 
by cutting at any depth more than 4 feet. When cut loose the plants 
float. In order to hoist the mass of loosened plants onto the barge 
it is suggested that the cutting bar should be placed in such a position 
as not to interfere, and a huge scooplike rake should be lowered and 
by this means the kelp be rolled back onto the barge. This would 
involve backing the barge after a suitable amount of kelp has been 
cut loose, in order to get the rake under the mass of floating kelp. 



192 FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Considerable quantities of driftwood are sometimes found in kelp 
beds, even large logs being sometimes entangled in the kelp and held 
there. This driftwood might in some cases prove somewhat trou- 
blesome in harvesting the kelp. It is more abundant in the kelp 
when the water is quiet than when it is disturbed by heavy waves or 
by swift tidal currents. 

In other countries where economic use is made of seaweeds they 
are harvested by hand, so that there will be no foreign precedents to 
guide anyone who may engage in kelp harvesting. The only ma- 
chinery that the writer has heard of for cutting plants under water 
is that used for cutting eel grass in the Erie Canal. 

The larger kelp beds could, of course, be harvested most eco- 
nomically. The one at Smiths Island is about 1 mile square, and 
would be the easiest of all the beds to harvest. The beds at Kanaka 
Bay, on San Juan Island, and at Iceberg Point, on Lopez Island, and 
at Neah Bay, near Cape Flattery, are also of sufficient size and 
density to be readily harvested. At Neah Bay much rougher water 
would be encountered than in the other beds mentioned. 

Kelp plants decay quickly in the summer if taken from the water 
and allowed to lie in piles. If well spread out they will dry in a 
few days in the sun to less than 20 per cent of their original weight, 
and a thick incrustation of effloresced salt will appear on the surface. 
It would not do to sundry this and then pack it into bales for ship- 
ment, as much of the effloresced salts would then be lost, A factory 
for making whatever products are found desirable could be located 
near enough to the large kelp beds so that the fresh material could 
be taken at once to the factory. In case it is found necessary to ship 
the dried raw material it should be packed in tight containers or 
bales, so that no salts will be lost. Burning the kelp on the beach 
near where it is collected and shipping the ash is also a possibility to 
be considered. 

It would probably be best in beginning the harvest of kelp to leave 
a part of each bed, so as to insure the production of a sufficient 
number of spores to provide for the production of next year's crop. 
The writer does not believe this to be necessary, but it would be well 
to proceed cautiously in the beginning. By selecting an isolated bed 
and cutting all of the kelp in it some time after July 15, then observ- 
ing whether kelp grows there the following year, a test could be 
readily made of whether a sufficient number of spores are produced 
before that time to insure the next year's crop. 

It has been suggested that floating kelp and kelp cast up on the 
shore could be profitably used, but the observations of the writer 
do not indicate that either of these sources offers enough material 
to merit consideration for commercial purposes. 

In some places, where the tidal currents and the depth of the water 
seem to be favorable for Nereocystis, vigorous plants are found, but 
they are very sparsely distributed, averaging in some cases even less 
than one plant to every 50 square feet. It seems possible that the 
thinness of these beds may be due to the lack of stones for anchorage. 
In case important uses should make this kelp valuable, it would be 
worth while to examine these bottoms to see whether there really is a 
scarcity of stones, and if this proves to be the case, to place stones 
there and see whether the kelp crop would be increased by this means. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 193 

The kelp bed at the south end of Guemes Island and the one on the 
Alden Bank would be good beds on which to experiment. 

Dall reported in 1875 that there was a bed of "bullhead kelp" 
(Nereocystis?) 25 square miles in extent on a shoal in the open sea 
northeast of St. George Island, in the Bering Sea. Setchell and 
Gardner say that Nereocystis lueikeana is " plentiful in the attached 
condition from the Shumagin Islands, Alaska, to the region of Santa 
Barbara Channel on the California coast." The amount of kelp 
available from Alaska and the possibility of greatly increasing the 
yield on the thinner beds in the Puget Sound regions are important 
questions for future investigation. 

If a kelp industry is to be developed in the Puget Sound region, 
the factories handling the material should not be limited to one 
product, but should be fitted to turn out all of the products that can 
be made from it. 

George B. Rigg, 
Assistant Professor of Botany, University of Washington, 

Special Agent United States Department of Agriculture. 
20S27 — S. Doc. 190, 62-2 13 



Appendix M. 
THE KELPS OF THE CENTRAL CALIFORNIAN COAST. 



INTRODUCTION. 



The western coast of North America, according to Setchell and 
Gardner (1903), may be considered as made up of four, possibly 
five, well-marked regions of algal growth. These are the following: 

1. Tropical region. — The northern boundarj 7 is in the neighborhood 
of Magdalena Bay, Lower California. It is characterized by the 
absence of the Laminariaceae and the abundance of Sargassaceae, 
Dictyotaceae, and other tropical groups. 

2. Subtropical region. — This region extends northward from Mag- 
dalena Bay to Point Conception, and is characterized by the presence 
of the Laminariaceae of warmer seas, such as species of Eisenia, 
Pelagophycus, and Egregia (Egregia laevigata, Setchell), by certain 
Dictyotaceae, as well as warmer water Bhodophyceae, all of which 
either have Point Conception as their northern limit, or occur only 
in warmer isolated areas above it. 

3. North temperate region. — The northern boundary of this region 
is in the neighborhood of Puget Sound. It is characterized by the 
absence of the strictly subtropical Laminariaceae, except occasionally 
Egregia laevigata, Setchell. No Sargassaceae nor Dictyotaceae are 
found. Instead of these the Nereocystis of colder waters, the north- 
ern Egregia {Egregia menziesii (Turner) Areschoug), and certain 
northern species of Laminaria occur. 

4. Boreal region. — The north temperate region passes into the 
boreal region at Puget Sound, and here many of the characteristic 
species are intermingled. An upper and a lower boreal region may 
possibly be distinguished. The region in general is characterized by 
the occurrence of Laminaria saccharina, certain Alariae, certain 
digitate Laminariae, Chorda, Rhodymenia pertusa (P. & R.), J. 
Agardh, and Alaria fistulosa (P. & R.). 

In accordance with this division the northern and central Cali- 
fornian coast falls within the temperate region of algal distribution. 
Even to the nonbotanical observer the abundance of the brown sea- 
weeds, the Phaeophyceae, is a striking feature of the rugged coast 
line of this portion of the State. Certain of these reach such a size 
and development that their utilization economically seems to be but 
a question of time and of information. In foreign countries, notably 
Japan and some portions of Europe, this group of plants furnishes 
a number of products of high commercial importance, used in the 
arts and sciences, as food, and as fertilizers. 

The present report deals with the results of an examination of a 
portion of the central Californian coast, extending from San Fran- 
cisco southward to the neighborhood of Point Sur, a distance of 
some 150 miles, and presenting a great variety of coast configuration., 
194 



FEETILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 195 

No attempt has been made to study any other than those forms which 
from their size and abundance seemed to be best available for com- 
mercial use. Dry samples of all these have been submitted to the 
Bureau of Soils for chemical analysis, the results of which can 
best be interpreted by the experts of the department, and are hence 
not included in the present report. 

The following is a list of the samples thus submitted : 

Macrocystis pyrifera (Turner) Ag. 

Nereocystis luetkeana (Mert.) Post. & Rupr., stipe and pneuniatocyst. 

Nereocystis luetkeana (Mert.) Post. & Rupr., Thallus. 

Laminaria andersonii Farlow. 

Egregia menziesii (Turner) Areschoug. 

Postelsia palmwformis Ruprecht. 

Fucus fur cat us Ag. 

Fucus evanescens Ag. 

Dictyoncuron califomicum Ruprecht. 

Costaria turneri Grev. 

Gigartina radula Ag. 

Oigartina spinosa Kiitz. 

All of these belong to the group of the brown algae, with the ex- 
ception of the last two, which are members of the Rhodophyceae, or 
red algae. 

Accompanying this report are submitted a number of maps based 
on the coast survey charts upon which have been plotted the position, 
extent, and nature of the kelp beds described in the following pages. 
These charts are the following: 

1. Coast Survey Chart No. 5500, Point Pinos to Bodega Head. 

2. Coast Survey Chart No. 549S, Monterey Bay, Cal. 

3. Coast Survey Chart No. 5491, Monterey Harbor. 

4. Coast Survey Chart No. 5476, Pfeiffer Point to Point Cypress. 

In the following pages there will be given, first, a general descrip- 
tion of the kelps examined with their ecological characters, and fol- 
lowing this a survey of the coast with their distribution along it. 

PHAEOPHYCEAE. 

1. Fucus evanescens Agardh. 

2. Fucus furcatus Agardh. 

These are representatives of one of the most abundant genera of 
the brown algae, widely distributed in both the Atlantic and the 
Pacific Oceans. They are found between tide marks attached to 
the upper surfaces and the sides of rocks which are left bare at low 
tide. In many localities the alga is thus exposed for hours, living 
almost as much of the time out of water as in it. Each plant is 
attached by a small, irregular holdfast and its stem branches abun- 
dantly into a multitude of subdivisions, which flatten and dilate to- 
ward their tips, forming a dense cluster, which may reach a length 
of 2 or 3 feet, or even more under favorable circumstances. The 
flattened attachment disk is so closely adherent to the substratum 
that the stem will break before the holdfast gives way. At the 
flattened and broadened apices of the thallus may be found the 
conceptacles, or reproductive portions of the plant. 

So far as is known all the species of Fucus are perennial plants and 
the reproductive activity does not seem to be dependent upon the 
season of the year, since mature oospheres and antherozooids escape 
at all times, and the young plants may be found growing in all 



196 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

stages during the year. Just how fast the plant grows on this coast 
is not known. In a series of experiments commenced in August, 
1911, definite areas of rocks, covered with a dense growth of Fucus, 
were entirely denuded of the plants. These will be visited at inter- 
vals, and the rate of growth may thus be determined. Such a study 
will, of course, require considerable time before any definite results 
can be recorded. 

The individual plants are attached at irregular intervals apart 
upon the surface of the rocks on which they grow. The number of 
plants per square yard of surface area ranges from 15 to 33, with an 
average of 24.8 for 50 square yards examined. Ten such areas were 
selected at different points on the southern shore of Monterey Bay, 
and the total amount of Fucus from each was carefully weighed. 
The weights varied from 8 to 27 pounds, with an average weight of 
18.5 pounds. These areas were taken at random in typical Fucus 
beds. At low tide, when the Fucus is exposed to the air, it lies in a 
mass covering the rocks so thickly that indirect handling only can 
determine the relative amount in any particular spot. All intentional 
selection of any more or less favorable spots was avoided in taking 
these areas, and they may be regarded as typical of the region. Most 
of the plants were in large, well-developed clusters, relatively few 
small plants being found. A number of other similar areas, some of 
much larger extent, gave approximately the same results as the 10 
above cited and taken as typical. For example, one of them, measur- 
ing 3 by 25 feet, 8^ square yards in area, gave a weight of Fucus of 
17.2 pounds per square yard. All of the above figures refer to damp 
kelp, drained free from sea water. To determine the loss of weight 
in drying, the kelp from five such areas was spread in the sun. After 
26 hours' exposure, during which it had lost all feeling of dampness, 
it was collected and reweighed, with the following results : 

Average weight: Pounds. 
Wet 17.8 

Dry (44.3 per cent) 7.9 

Loss in weight (55.7 per cent) 9.9 

Thus the average loss of weight due to the evaporation of the water 
through 26 hours' exposure was 55.7 per cent of the total weight. 
This rough determination is of value only as indicating approxi- 
mately the amount of water in the plant which could be removed by 
a simple drying in the process of harvesting. None of the salts con- 
tained in the plant effloresced upon the surface during this time. 
Evaporation to complete dryness would, of course, give a much higher 
per cent of water content. 

3. Egregia menziesii (Turner) Areschoug. 

This species of Egregia is one of the characteristic algae of the 
north temperate region of the Pacific coast. It ranges from Puget 
Sound southward to the neighborhood of Point Conception, its place 
from there southward being taken by another species of the same 
genus, Egregia laevigata^ Setchell. 

Its large holdfasts are fastened to the rocks of the lower littoral 
and upper sublittoral zones, where it is never entirely uncovered by 
the receding tide. The rounded stem branches frequently, the 
branches terminating in long thick straplike leaves, about 1^ inches 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 197 

in width, along the margins of which short lateral offshoots are 
crowded. These are of several sorts. The most are leaflike, with 
smooth uniform margins and surfaces. Others of similar form are 
irregularly ribbed and bear the reproductive organs. A third variety 
is long, filamentlike, and branched, while the fourth is modified 
into elongate ovoidal or ellipsoidal pneumatocysts, each usually bear- 
ing a small leaflike expansion at its apex. The total length of such 
a plant may reach 30 to 40 or more feet, though shorter ones are com- 
moner. The ends of the long straplike thalli usually terminate ab- 
ruptly, being frayed and worn through being lashed back and forth 
by the waves. 

Egregia is abundant along the Californian coast among rocks 
beyond low-tide mark. It frequently accompanies the beds of 
Macrocystis and Nereocystis, replacing them in the shallower water 
near shore, along with species of Alaria of similar habit. What 
its duration of life may be is not known to me, as I have been unable 
to find any information on the subject. From having observed it 
at all seasons of the year at Pacific Grove, when collecting animal 
forms, I infer that it is perennial, or at least lives longer than a 
single year. 

Individual plants of Egregia are usually more scattered than in 
the case of Fucus and are apt to be more intermingled with other 
forms. Ten square yards of rock surfaces covered with Egregia 
plants of average size were cleared, and the kelp carefully weighed. 
These areas were selected in the vicinity of Pacific Grove. The 
average weight of the damp kelp per square yard was 70.5 pounds. 
After 25 hours' drying in the open air 60.5 pounds of damp Egregia 
had lost 42.5 pounds, weighing but 18 pounds. This sample was not 
completely air dried, being somewhat damp to the touch. 

The long tangled masses of Egregia make up a conspicuous part 
of the windrows of kelp washed up on the sandy beaches, especially 
during the fall and winter months after storms, when tons of kelp 
are thus rolled up. 

Associated with Egregia are usually species of Alaria, a kelp of 
considerable size and frequently very abundant. Its holdfast is 
made up of a mass of rootlets or haptomeres, the stem is slightly 
flattened and bears two rows of basal leaves, the main stem ending 
in a long flat blade. It is likewise washed up on the beaches after 
storms, especially the distal bladelike portion, which breaks off and 
is renewed annually. 

4. Gostaria turneri Greville. 

Occurs on rocks below low-tide mark in the upper part of the 
sublittoral zone along with the foregoing species. It is attached by 
a rootlike holdfast, the stem is short and dilates into a broad leaf- 
like thallus with three to five longitudinal undulating ribs which 
extend the whole length of the thallus. It occurs all along the coast 
from Point Conception northward to Puget Sound and Alaska. It 
is quite common at Point Pinos, Monterey Bay. 

5. Dictyoneuron caUfornicum Enprecht. 

Stem short, forking, the terminal thallus leaflike, ridged and 
folded in a netted pattern. It occurs sparingly in Puget Sound, 
but more abundantly southward, although it is always one of the 



198 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

rarer algae. Associated with Costaria, Alaria, and Laminaria in 
semisheltered spaces between rocks beyond low-tide mark. 

6. Laminaria andersonii Farlow. 

A strongly developed plant growing in the sublittoral zone upon 
rocks often exposed to strong surf. Its stem is rather short and 
almost woodlike, the thick blade of the thallus smooth and glossy, 
more or less split and digitate. The plant is perennial, the leaf being 
renewed each year. Members of this genus have been extensively 
used as a source of iodine and mannite, and as fertilizers in many 
countries. 

Several species of Laminaria are found along the Californian 
coast, the one here cited being the most abundant in the region of 
Monterey Bay. It grows scattered and in groups and is frequently 
found fringing tidal channels where the currents run strongly back 
and forth, its strong elastic stem and firm thallus well adapting it 
for such a position. 

7. Postelsia palmaeformis Buprecht. 

Found on rocks on exposed points from the Strait of San Juan de 
Fuca southward nearly to Point Conception, Point Sur being given 
as about its southern limit. The treelike " sea palm " grows in small 
forests or groves at or near high-water mark in places where the 
waves dash the strongest. In this habitat it is often uncovered by 
the receding tide, but the dashing spray of the surf keeps it almost 
continually dripping. It is frequently found as a fringe along high- 
tide mark on precipitous cliffs, its strong elastic stem and leaves fur- 
nishing an almost perfect adaptation to the impact of the heaviest 
waves. During the winter months, however, it may be torn loose 
and cast up by the surf on sandy beaches as a part of the great masses 
of kelp thus heaped up. 

The holdfast of Postelsia is strong and made up of a large number 
of rootlike processes or haptomeres arising from the base of the 
treelike trunk or stem. The latter is cylindrical, up to an inch and 
a half in diameter and tapering, 1 to 2 feet in height, and bears at 
its summit a crown of narrow, leaflike expansions. Each of these 
has a short basal stem, forking once or twice, the blade longitudi- 
nally ribbed and moderately thick. It is presumably perennial, but 
I have been unable to find any recorded observations upon this point. 

A determination of the relative amounts of water and solid sub- 
stance was made for Postelsia by means of drying completely in an 
electric oven. The, following figures are typical of the results: 



Lot 1. Lot 2. 



Weight of damp fronds grams. 

Weight of dried fronds do. . . 

Loss in weight, or the amount of water do... 

Water in fronds per cent. 

Dry substance do . . . 

Weight of damp stems grams . 

Weight of dried stems do. . . 

Loss in weight, or water content do... 

Water in stems per cent . 

Drr substance In stems do . . . 



400.00 
81.25 


200.00 
38.50 


318. 75 


161.50 


79.69 
20.31 

400. 00 
51.72 


80. 75 
19.25 


348.28 
87.04 
12. 96 





FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 199 

8. Nereocystis luetkeana (Mertens) Postels and Ruprecht. 

This species is the most striking and conspicuous of all the brown 
algae of the Pacific coast. It is attached by its enormous holdfasts to 
rocks in the sublittoral zone, and reaches its full development in from 
10 to 12 fathoms of water. Its range is from the Shumagin Islands, 
Alaska, to the Santa Barbara Channel, Cal., and it is found floating 
in masses of several acres in extent in the Bering Sea up to the lati- 
tude of the Pribiloff Islands, according to Setchell and Gardner. All 
along the coast southward it is a common object floating in the 
water, and is an indication to sailors of their approach to land. Its 
favorite location appears to be in tidal channels where the currents 
are swift and strong. 

Four regions may be distinguished in the adult plant, viz, the 
holdfast, the stipe or stem, the pneumatocyst or float, and the 
lamina? or leaves. The plant is attached to the rocks by a huge hold- 
fast, a foot or more in diameter, from which originates a long, slen- 
der stipe about one-fourth of an inch in diameter. Throughout the 
greater portion of its length the stipe is very slender; then, as it 
approaches the pneumatocyst, it increases gradually in diameter up to 
approximately three-fourths of an inch. A cavity now appears in 
its center and the whole stem dilates into the pneumatocyst, reach- 
ing a diameter of 6 inches or even more at the bulb. Just below the 
spherical bulb is a constriction, so that the cavity is given the shape 
of a straight retort. In the young plants the float is spherical, then, 
as maturity approaches, it becomes ovoid and finally elongated to a 
length of from 6 to 10 feet. The long tube thus formed is frequently 
made use of by the Alaskan Indians to siphon the water out of their 
boats, and the dried, tough, whiplike slender stipe was formerly 
used for fishing lines by the same people. 

The laminae arise as two main expansions, each of which splits 
lengthwise repeatedly in growth, so that the result appears as two 
groups of leaves, borne on the distal end of the pneumatocyst. Each 
of these groups may have as many as 20 to 25 such leaves. Each 
lamina lengthens by a basally situated growth area, the activity of 
which makes up for the wearing away of the tips of the leaves by 
the waves. 

Nereocystis reaches enormous dimensions under favorable circum- 
stances. Specimens of 100 meters in length are recorded by Kj ell- 
man, of which some 80 meters form the stipe, 2 to 3 meters the pneu- 
matocyst, and the remaining IT meters the leaves. The leaves rarely 
reach 50 feet in length, one-half that being much more common. 
Along the Californian coast the extreme dimensions are very seldom 
reached, specimens 100 feet long being rare. 

When the water is quiet the pneumatocysts float nearly upright in 
the water, appearing as round, gourdlike bodies at the surface, the 
leaves streaming off at one side from them. In tidal currents the 
floats lie lengthwise with the direction of the flow, and the long 
leaves stretch out beyond them beneath the surface. According to 
MacMillan the shifting of the great pneumatocysts when the tide 
changes is sufficient to overturn small skiffs which may be caught 
among them. Larger boats find a Nereocystis bed a safe anchorage 
if overtaken by a storm while off a lee shore, and Puget Sound fish- 
ermen often anchor their boats to a dozen of the pneumatocysts and 



200 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

thus ride out a gale with no fear of being blown on the rocks. Sim- 
ilar use is made of the beds of Nereocystis and of Macrocystis along 
the Californian coast. 

These gigantic plants are annuals, dying in the late autumn ; their 
stipes break away above the holdfast, or occasionally the latter itself 
breaks loose, and the plants drift at the mercy of the waves, and are 
cast up in hundreds of tons along the beaches to decay and disappear. 
In the spring and early summer the young plants alone are to be 
found. Their growth must be rapid, for by midsummer the large 
plants are seen again. A great deal of the increase in length of the 
whole plant is of course due to the lengthening of the very slender 
stem. 

I have been unable to find individual plants of Nereocystis in the 
region examined by me which attained anything like the maximum 
dimensions given by Kjellman, Mertens, Setchell and Gardner, and 
MacMillan. Specimens up to 100 feet in length are met with, of 
which length the leaves would make up 15 to 20 feet and the stipe 
and pneumatocyst the remainder. Those washed up on the beaches 
usually have the leaves badly frayed away, and often the stipe is 
broken as well. To pull loose from the rocks a vigorous adult plant, 
that is able to anchor a good-sized boat in a storm, is something of 
an undertaking, and the depth in which such a plant grows renders 
cutting it off at the base impossible. Consequently, the data which 
I have been able to secure as to the weight of the plants is rather 
unsatisfactory. The figures secured from the weighings of a num- 
ber of good-sized average plants, however, range from 43 to 76 
pounds in the damp condition. No comparative weighings were 
made of wet and dried material. 

9. Macrocystis pyrifera (Turner) Agardh. 

This species of giant kelp makes up the bulk of the beds along 
the region examined. It grows on rocks off the coast in from 5 to 
15 fathoms of water, generally, and ranges southward from Alaskan 
waters all along the coast. In this region it is especially plentiful 
in large beds near Santa Cruz and Monterey. 

Macrocystis has the widest distribution of any plant known. In 
the Southern Hemisphere it encircles the globe, limited to the south- 
ward apparently by the circumpolar ice alone ; it extends northward 
through all the South Temperate waters to the Tropic of Capricorn. 
It is recorded from the Strait of Magellan, Cape Horn, the Falk- 
land Islands, South Georgia Islands, Tristan da Cunha, Cape of 
Good Hope, Prince Edward Island, Crozet Islands, Kerguelen, St. 
Paul, the west and south coasts of Australia, New Zealand, Chatham 
Island, Auckland Island, and in the Pacific Ocean, following the 
coast of the American continent up into the Northern Hemisphere to 
Alaska and the Bering Sea. In all these regions it reaches enormous 
extent. Dall (1875) records a patch 25 square miles in extent, north- 
east of St. George Island on a shoal in the open sea, and it is exces- 
sively abundant in the Aleutians. In the Southern Hemisphere it is 
much more extensive than this, if the tales of mariners be true. 

The plant is attached to the bottom by a large holdfast, reaching 
3 feet and more in diameter, and made up of a mass of hapteres. 
The stem at first branches equally, but later some of these divisions 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES, 201 

grow much stronger than the others, attaining finally a length of 
from 200 to 300 meters. The primary growing point of each stem 
is located near the apex of the broad sickle-shaped or scimitar-shaped 
expansion at the tip. Successive parallel clefts appear in this vege- 
tation point and progressively increase in length, the Avaves finally 
splitting the blade proximally into narrow segments, each one of 
which becomes a " leaf." The basal portion of each of these differen- 
tiates into a short stem with an oblong or pear-shaped pneumatocyst, 
the remainder becoming the broad and very long lamina. The upper 
surface of this lamina is corrugated irregularly, thus decidedly 
strengthening it. Its margin is dentate. This mode of leaf forma- 
tion is really by means of a continual bifurcation of the growing 
point, one of the lobes thus formed growing more rapidly than the 
other and becoming the continuation of the stem, while the other 
develops a float and becomes a leaf. Thus, from one holdfast, a plant 
of enormous extent finally arises, its basally branched stems bearing 
uniserial leaves over 3 feet long, the whole trailing off through the 
water for hundreds of feet in a dense mass. 

The mode of development of the young Microcystis is well de- 
scribed by Skottsberg (1907). The young plant divides dichoto- 
mously; each part thus formed may develop into a stem. The 
further division of the terminal lamina is likewise dichotomous, but 
the outer segment rounds basally into a stem, while the inner one 
usually develops a float and becomes a leaf. The primary stem is 
very short in the young plant, and by the successive development 
of new circles of hapteres above the old ones the point of first 
branching becomes buried in the holdfast, making it appear that 
two, or indeed several, separate stems arose from the same holdfast. 
New stems therefore do not arise as outgrowths from the holdfast, 
but are formed only as branches of the original stem. During 
growth the internodal stems lengthen, reaching 2 to 3 feet, 
and exhibit a twisting, so that the leaves come to lie in different 
planes. In diameter the stems vary from one-fourth to nearly one- 
half an inch, and are extremely slender in comparison to the enor- 
mous extent of the whole plant. 

The reproductive sporangia are borne on certain of the leaves, 
either basal ones or nearer the tip of the floating portion. But 
little is known of their structure or the early development of the 
plant. 

The length of adult plants, as given by various authorities, varies 
from 30 to 1,500 feet. Hooker gives 100 to 200 feet as the ordinary 
length, but estimates others at from 300 to 700 feet. So far as I 
know none has been measured at Pacific Grove with a length of 
over 150 feet. Washed-up specimens are always broken or so hope- 
lessly entangled in enormous masses that it is impossible to unsnarl 
them for the purpose of measurement. 

Beds of these kelps many acres in extent, so dense that rowboats 
can scarcely be forced through them, are common all along the 
California coast. As the depth of water in which the plant grows 
is usually less than 100 feet, the greater portion of the plant is 
floating at or near the surface. By the first divisions of the young 
plant a considerable number of branches may arise, all of which 
become stems. The limit of growth of each of these stems would 
seem to depend upon its freedom from injury from waves and 



202 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

storms. When attached to loose rocks the buoyancy developed by 
the increase in size of the plant often drags the holdfast, rock and 
all, free from the bottom, especially during storms, and the whole 
plant may be cast up on the shore or drift out over the ocean. The 
age of the plants and their period of life, if indeed they may be 
said to have anything resembling a stated period, is not known. 
As long as the growing point at the end of a stem remains vigorous, 
continuous growth of that stem would seem to be possible. In every 
bed of Macrocystis, however, broken stems and leaves, with frayed 
and torn ends, are found more or less decayed. The rate of growth 
of the tips of the stems seems to be also unknown. The leaves ap- 
parently rapidly reach their full growth and the older leaves along 
the stems are often tattered and broken, while sometimes the whole 
lamina has disappeared, leaving the floats alone, there being no 
regeneration of the leaf tissue. Such points as these would be of 
decided importance were this plant found to be of economic value. 
With a view to determine some of these a series of observations have 
been initiated upon a bed of Macrocystis not far from the Marine 
Biological Laboratory of Leland Stanford Junior University, at 
Pacific Grove, Cal. A large number of tips have been marked in 
order to determine the growth rate, but such observations must 
extend over at least a full year before they will have any weight. 
So far as I am aware no continuous observations have ever been 
made upon a given bed of kelp. In general the beds appear to 
maintain much the same position and location throughout the year, 
increasing somewhat in extent. 

While I have never paid any attention to the life history of this 
plant before the present summer, I have for the past 19 years been 
more or less familiar with it, as it is the home of many forms of 
animal life which have been studied by myself or in the marine 
laboratory at Pacific Grove. During the years 1892 to 1894 an al- 
most continuous bed of Macrocystis extended from Point Aulon to 
Almeja Point. This bed was from 50 to 150 feet in width and fully 
one-half mile long. Beyond Point Aulon to the northwest the kelp 
was much less abundant. During the summers of 1895 and 1896 I 
was absent from the laboratory and on my return in 1897 found 
that the first-named bed had entirely disappeared, nor has the area 
been again occupied by it save in two small patches. On the other 
hand, the bed off Aumento's Rock has increased enormously in ex- 
tent and now forms the most conspicuous bed in the vicinity, being 
fully three-quarters of a mile long and up to 400 feet in width. I 
have no written record of the above, but believe it to be substantially 
correct, since I was collecting animal forms from these beds and 
from Aumento's Rock during the above summers and have done so 
at intervals since. 

A plant fastened to the rocks in a depth of water up to 15 fathoms, 
branching freely in its lower portion well out of sight, associated 
closely with other individuals in the same kelp bed and extending 
off through the water for several scores of feet, presents almost in- 
surmountable difficulties in an attempt to ascertain its weight or to 
estimate the amount contained in any given area of surface. One 
can neither be sure of collecting the whole plant nor of knowing 
what proportion of it he has, nor, finally, how many such plants 
enter into any given area. It is not difficult to cut off stems at from 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 203 

15 to 20 feet below the surface of the water with a sickle attached 
to a long pole, but this is a long way from collecting a whole plant. 
I have collected and weighed many such branches and have found 
weights ranging from 37 to 92 pounds, the lengths varying from 50 
to 100 feet. The time and facilities at my disposal have not enabled 
me to finish satisfactorily any such estimates. To get any accurate 
information as to the amount in any bed of Macrocystis I feel that 
an experimental harvest of a definite and considerable area is the 
only method which promises satisfactory results. In an area ol 
kelp 100 feet long and 50 feet wide I counted 58 steins, but other 
areas showed a great range of variation from this. 

The amount of steins and leaves showing at the surface is an in- 
dication in a general way of the density of a given bed, but with no 
information as to the extent of kelp below the surface, the extent 
of branching in the depths, or of how much may be considered 
a single plant. It thus becomes a very difficult problem to give any 
estimates which are anything beyond mere guesses. One has but to 
row out to a kelp bed' and to look clown through a water glass at 
the maze below for an hour or so to gain a vivid realization of its 
difficulty. Such an experimental harvest as I suggest could best 
be made with large boats such as the Chinese and Japanese fisher- 
men use in the squid industry. At the time of my examination of 
the Monterey Bay beds all such fishermen were at work catching 
salmon, an employment so profitable that they could not be secured 
for any such work. _ 

There are undoubtedly thousands of tons of kelp in the Cahfor- 
nian beds of Macrocystis, but my data at present do not justify any 
estimate as to the probable yield per acre of surface. 

RHODOPHTCEAE. 

In addition to the above-described brown alga? there are a number 
of the red alga? which occur in abundance at various points and are 
cf considerable bulk, such as the Irideas and Gigartina. Gigartina 
radula Ag. and Gigartina spinosa Kiitz occur in abundance at Point 
Pinos, Monterey Bay, and in various other places in the lower litoral 
and upper sublitoral zones, along with the Laminarias. Their dark 
red thalli, roughened with short blunt processes from either surface, 
are conspicuous objects in almost every mass of kelp washed up on 
the beaches. 

A RECONNOISSANCE OF THE PACIFIC SHORE LINE FROM SAN FRANCISCO TO 

POINT SUR. 

In the following pages are given the results of a study of the oc- 
currence of the kelps just described along 150 miles of central Cali- 
fornia coast. This stretch of shore line was examined at close range, 
and also with strong field glasses from high points of vantage when 
the conformation of the shore prevented close examination. 

The coast lino in question is quite varied in character, in part 
showing long stretches of sandy beaches; again rocky ledges and 
abundant tide pools or precipitous cliffs descending abruptly into 
the water. Accompanying this description are submitted sheets 
from Coast Survey Charts Nos. 5500, 5498, 5491, and 5476. 



204 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 



GOLDEN GATE SHORE. 
[Chart 5500. Sheet IV.] 



Along the entrance to the Golden Gate from Fort Point to Point 
Lobos (Seal Eocks), a distance of 3 miles, the coast is precipitous 
and rocky, with but scanty algal growth, mainly Fucus. None of 
this is of sufficient extent to be of any commercial importance. 



POINT LOBOS TO SAN PEDRO POINT. 
[Chart 5500. Sheet IV.] 



From Point Lobos, or Seal Eocks, to the cove just north of San 
Pedro Point, a distance of 13.7 miles, a straight sandy beach stretches 
continuously. Behind its upper third are sand dunes, while the 
remainder is in front of high vertical cliffs, reaching an elevation 
of 400 to 500 feet near Mussel Eock. No kelp whatever is found 
along this beach save at its lower end, where scattered Fucus grows 
at Mussel Eock and on the small rocky headlands forming the north 
boundary of San Pedro Cove. The precipitous sides of Montana 
Mountain here reach the sea and form San Pedro Point, with cliffs 
500 to 1,000 feet in height. On the south side of the cove is located 
the first considerable bed of kelp. It is composed of Egregia, suc- 
ceeded by Nereocystis toward the point. This bed of Egregia is 
about 350 feet in length by 50 to 75 feet in width. The bed of 
Nereocystis is estimated at 300 feet in length by 125 feet in width. 
Careful counting of the floats gave 5,000 as a total number of plants 
for this bed. According to the statements of the station agent at 
Tobin, a station on the Ocean Shore Eailroad on the cliff overlook- 
ing the kelp bed, hundreds of tons of kelp are washed ashore on the 
San Pedro Beach every winter. If we take 50 pounds as the average 
weight of a Nereocystis plant — and this is well within the average — ■ 
the total weight of the 5,000 plants would be 250,000 pounds, or 125 
tons, which is probably not far from correct. For the Egregia bed 
of 1,944 square yards the average of 70 pounds per square yard would 
give 136,080 pounds, or 68 tons. On the south side of San Pedro 
Point is another Nereocystis bed nearly as large as the one just de- 
scribed. It is estimated as containing some 4,000 plants and would 
furnish 100 tons of kelp on the same basis. All three beds would 
furnish nearly 300 tons of kelp and, so far as the Nereocystis is 
concerned, would be an annual crop. San Pedro Valley has many 
vegetable ranches supplying the city trade. It would seem that here 
at their doors is a large amount of valuable fertilizer going to waste 
which might be harvested and utilized at but little expense. 



SAN PEDRO POINT TO PILLAR POINT. 
[Chart 5500. Sheet IV.] 



The first third of this total distance of 11.8 miles is a sheer cliff, 
with but little opportunity to reach the water's edge. A narrow 
fringe of Postelsia occurs at intervals and becomes much more abun- 
dant at Point Montara. Here for a distance of nearly 2 miles Postel- 
sia is quite common, Fucus less so, and Nereocystis, Egregia, and Ma- 
crocystis at intervals. From Montara Point to Pillar Point a series of 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 205 

parallel reefs jut obliquely out from the narrow sand beach in a 
northwesterly direction, being outcrops of the greatly tilted strata. 
Between these reefs the kelp flourishes, and upon their outer ex- 
posed ends Postelsia finds a footing. Along the sand beach consid- 
erable red algae is also continually washed up. This region could 
supply a limited amount of fertilizer to the ranches in the neighbor- 
hood. 

PTT.T.AR POINT TO PESC-VDEBO CREEK. 
[Chart 5500. Sheets IV and V.] 

This distance of 18.25 miles comprises the region of Half Moon 
Bay and the nearly straight sand beach beyond. The bluffs are at 
first low and then increase in height to from 200 to 300 feet. 

Off Pillar Point and extending southerly across the northern por- 
tion of Half Moon Bay is a large bed of Macrocystis of irregular 
form. This was studied from the 150-foot high point with a strong field 
glass, as I was unable to procure a boat. The main bed is somewhat 
crescentic in form, is fully one-half mile long and from 100 to 200 
feet in width. Other more scattered beds occur in the region, which 
together would total up as much as the large bed. Nereocystis and 
Egregia are also abundant, but Macrocystis is predominant. This 
bed forms the principal source of the kelp which is washed up along 
the shore of Half Moon Bay in great quantities during the winter 
months. Some 6 to 12 acres are included in the main bed, which 
occupies a depth of from 12 to 14 fathoms according to the chart 
soundings. Aside from this bed no considerable masses of kelp are 
found for some distance. Near Point Miramontes occur a few 
ledges with Postelsia, and, opposite Purissima, a small cove some 
1,000 feet across is filled with rocky ledges, between which consider- 
able Egregia is growing and outside of it a small bed of Nereocystis 
containing about 500 large plants. Similar beds are found at inter- 
vals, though in no great amounts. Within a mile there are prob- 
ably 2,000 or 2,500 Nereocystis plants, considerable Egregia, and 
scattered Macrocystis, with Postelsia on most ledges. 

In this region the ranches near by could secure a good deal of 
valuable fertilizer with no great difficulty. There is not enough, 
however, to meet any great demand. 

PESCADERO CREEK TO ANO NUEVO POINT, 14.7 MILES. 
[Chart 5500. Sheet V.] 

Below the mouth of Pescadero Creek the shore becomes rocky for 
some 4 miles, and scattered clumps of Fucus, Egregia, and Postel- 
sia are found. Near Pigeon Point the same characteristics occur 
again, followed by a sandy beach, broken only by Franklin Point 
before Ano Nuevo Point is reached. At Franklin Point scanty shore 
kelps are found, but no large beds until Point Ano Nuevo is reached. 

ANO NUEVO POINT TO SANTA CRUZ LIGHT, 21 MILES. 
[Chart 5500. Sheet V.] 

South of Ano Nuevo Point, Macrocystis becomes abundant and 
the first large beds of this kelp occur. The first of these is immedi- 
ately south of the point and extends in a direction parallel with the 
coast, in a dense bed, for some 4 miles in length and varying in 
width from 200 to 600 feet. This bed is nearly continuous until off 



206 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Greyhound Kock, where it becomes narrower and more interrupted. 
Three of the four miles at least are occupied by kelp, and a conserva- 
tive estimate would place the area of this bed at from 150 to 200 
acres. 

From Greyhound Eock on down the coast to El Jarro Point, 4 
miles, the Macrocystis beds are more scattered and are narrower, 
ranging from 30 to 50 feet in width. The same condition continues 
farther southward, save that larger beds become more numerous. 
Between Sandhill Bluff and Table Kock a large bed, 300 feet wide 
and nearly a mile in length, occurs. A similar widening occurs 
beyond Needle Rock, with narrower beds connecting these areas. At 
Terrace Point the Santa Cruz beds proper may be said to begin. 
These beds range from 100 to 500 feet in width and extend par- 
allel to the shore line, at a distance of from 500 to 1,000 feet from 
it, in unbroken series nearly to Point Santa Cruz. Inside of this 
outer zone of Macrocystis occur scattered Egregia masses, rising 
to the surface, but not making continuous beds. A summary of the 
estimated area of these beds is the following : 

Acres. 
Ano Nuevo bed, 4 miles 150 to 200 

Greyhound Rock to Sandhill Bluff, 8J miles 19 to 47 

Sandhill Bluff to Terrace Point, 5f miles 60 to 120 

Terrace Point to Santa Cruz Point, 2 miles 24 to 120 

Total acreage 253 to 487 

From 250 to 500 acres of Macrocystis are present along a coast 
distance of 21 miles. As these are all conservative figures, the larger 
figure is probably nearer the correct amount than the smaller one. 

SANTA CRUZ HARBOR TO MONTEREY HARBOR. 
[Chart 5498. Sheets V and VI.] 

From Santa Cruz to Monterey a long sweep of sand beach ex- 
tends for a distance of 38 miles, broken only near Santa Cruz by any 
rock formations. This stretch is destitute of kelp save in the neigh- 
borhood of Capitola, where two large beds of Macrocystis are found. 
Each of these is accompanied by some Egregia on its inner border. 
At the left of the Capitola Wharf is a large and dense bed, three 
quarters of a mile in length and averaging 300 feet in width. On 
the right of the wharf a similar bed extends around Soquel Point, 
lessens gradually in amount, and disappears before reaching Santa 
Cruz Harbor. This bed is 3f miles long and averages 500 feet in 
width for most of its extent, and contains an area of approximately 
200 acres. The smaller bed on the left of the wharf is estimated 
at 30 acres, the two together giving a total of 230 acres. Thus 
within a radius of 20 miles of Santa Cruz there are growing be- 
tween 600 and 700 acres of Macrocystis. If this kelp proves to be of 
any agricultural value as a fertilizer, this region will be of great 
importance, at least locally. The great fruit-producing section 
back of the Bay of Monterey should welcome any such addition to 
its resources. 

MONTEREY HARBOR TO POINT LOBOS. 
[Charts 5498 and 5476. Sheets VI and VII.] 

As before stated the remainder of the coast line from Santa Cruz 
to Monterey is destitute of kelp, the shifting nature of the long sandy 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 207 

beach affording no foothold for the algae. Beginning at Monterey, 
however, and extending around the peninsula to Carmel Bay fol- 
lows a stretch of coast which shows a great variety and abundance 
of the brown algae. The shore line is in the main rocky, interrupted 
only by a few sandy beaches, and has a continuous fringe of Fucus 
throughout nearly its whole extent. The amount varies with the 
inclination of the bottom and the consequent width of the tidal 
zone. In a few places, notably near Point Pinos, this reaches a 
width of 100 to 200 feet, and the rocks are thickly covered with 
Fucus and other brown algae. At Point Pinos the larger Phaeo- 
phyceae, such as Laminaria, Alaria, Egregia, Nereocystis, Costaria, 
Dictyoneuron, Postelsia, and many others, are common. From 
Almeja, or Mussel Point (locally "Chinatown Point"), a distance 
of 2| miles, I would estimate the average width of the Fucus zone 
at 10 feet. Applying the average weight of Fucus, 18.5 pounds per 
square yard, as given on page 196 of this report, we have a total of 
294,335 pounds, or 147 tons, of this plant. As at least 60 per cent 
of this weight is water, about 50 tons would represent the amount of 
solid substance represented in 2§ miles. 

The other Phaeophyceae mentioned as occurring here do not form 
large continuous beds of any great extent, but grow wherever they 
can find a foothold and suitable environment. They should be 
reckoned with, however, as forming a substantial part of the kelp 
resources of this region. 

At Point Aulon occurs the first considerable bed of Macrocystis 
on the south side of Monterey Bay, though scattered masses of it 
are found in Monterey Harbor and at intervals along the coast to 
this point. This bed is about three- fourths of a mile in total length 
and would probably amount to between 5 and 8 acres in extent, 
though its irregularity makes an estimate somewhat difficult. 

On the ocean side of Point Pinos and on down the coast to 
Carmel Bay the larger brown algae predominate as the coast becomes 
more rugged. Postelsia is found occasionally on the rocks, but not 
abundantly at any place. Macrocystis and Nereocystis are found 
scattered along at intervals, but in beds of no great extent, though 
the total is probably large. 

In Carmel Bay scattered beds of Macrocystis are common, though 
none of very large extent. Fucus occurs at intervals between tide 
marks and Egregia beyond. 

POINT LOBOS TO POINT SUB. 
[Chart 5476. Sheets VII and VIII.] 

At Point Lobos the coast becomes more rugged, with precipitous 
cliffs descending into the water. This character develops rapidly 
as one goes down the coast toward Point Sur. The cliffs become 
sheer perpendicular walls with the waves beating against their bases, 
and but scanty foothold is given for algal attachment. Postelsia 
clings wherever it can, and in the tideways between the points and 
detached rocky islets Nereocystis grows in no great numbers. The 
most of the shore line here can be reached only by boats, and boats 
are few and far between. 

In the course of the present inquiry I have been no farther south 
than Kaslers Point, but in previous summers I have been on collect- 



208 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

ing trips as far down the coast as the mouth of the Big Sur River, 
some 20 miles below Point Lobos, and have collected at all available 
points which could be reached along the shore. From these former 
trips and from information from others I have learned that the first 
considerable beds of Microcystis lie below Point Sur, approximately 
as indicated on the Coast Survey charts of this region. These beds 
are scattered over some 5 miles of coast between Point Sur and 
Cooper Point, and are very extensive. Upon the accompanying 
chart I have accentuated the position of these beds as given by the 
Coast Survey, but can not give any estimate of their area, as I have 
not seen them recently. The conventional signs on the chart indicate 
the presence of kelp, but give no information as to its extent save in 
a very general way. The beds are probably as great, if not greater, 
than those in the neighborhood of Santa Cruz. Various persons have 
told me on inquiry that they contained "hundreds of acres," but 
I, of course, place no great weight upon such estimates. These beds 
form a haven of refuge for small boats when caught out in a storm. 
They are composed mainly of Macrocystis, though Nereocystis occurs 
frequently. Along the shore rocks a little Fucus is found occasion- 
ally, and Egregia and other large species at intervals. As Point Sur 
is near the southern limit for Postelsia, this plant becomes rare. 

SUMMARY. 

Summing up the results of this examination, it would appear that 
for this region the marine algse which are most favorable in point 
of abundance and location for purposes of commercial use as fer- 
tilizers are the giant kelps Macrocystis and Nereocystis, together 
with the more common shore forms Fucus and Egregia, with the 
local addition of several other brown and a few red forms. If these 
kelps are shown by analysis to contain the necessasry constituents 
to make them of value, the region near Santa Cruz offers the largest 
supply. All along the coast local needs can in part be filled by the 
kelp which is washed up on the beaches during the winter storms, 
and by harvesting from boats. The greatest factor in determining 
the permanent value of these beds will manifestly lie in the rapidity 
of their reformation, or reforesting after such a harvest. For 
Nereocystis the facts are known, as it is an annual plant, and if 
taken in the fall and winter months should furnish a continuous an- 
nual supply in such places as San Pedro Cove. Unfortunately it 
does not grow in this region in the abundance which it manifests in 
northern waters. Concerning Macrocystis, we know nothing as to 
the rapidity of its growth, nor as to the length of life of the indi- 
vidual plant, and the same lack is evident with respect to most of 
our algal forms. These data must be secured through further studies 
continued through a longer space of time than was available for the 
present report. 

Frank M. McFarland, 
Professor of Histology, Leland Stanford Junior University; 
Instructor in Charge Marine Biological Laboratory ', Pacific 
Grove, Gal., Sessions 1910-11; Special Agent United States 
Department of Agriculture. 



Appendix N. 
THE KELPS OF THE SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA^ COAST. 



During the summer of 1911 the extent, locations, and botanical and 
ecological characteristics of the kelp between San Diego and Point 
Conception were investigated. Interviews were also held with those 
parties in the neighborhood who are studying or attempting to 
utilize the kelp as a source of potash for fertilizer. 

For the purposes of making the investigations the Marine Bio- 
logical Association of San Diego allowed the use of the Alexander 
Agassis, an 85-foot, ketch-rigged, 60-horsepower, auxiliary gasoline 
launch. This ketch is especially outfitted for scientific oceanic work 
and is used several months a year in research work. To the usual 
equipment was added a pair of scales, 50 drying trays, and kelp 
cutters. • 

The cruise was begun from San Diego. We proceeded along the 
coast from one-half to 1 mile offshore to Point Conception ; then, after 
returning to Santa Barbara for supplies, we steamed around Anacapa, 
Santa Cruz, Santa Rosa, San Miguel, San Nicolas, Santa Barbara, 
Catalina, and San Clemente Islands. In this way all the kelp 
beds known from San Diego to Point Conception were seen and 
estimated. The total length of the trip was 730 miles. The estimated 
area of the beds is given in Table I and is shown as observed on the 
charts accompanying this report. The beds in some parts of the 
Santa Barbara Channel and around the islands were very difficult to 
estimate on account of the strong currents running, thus causing 
the kelp to run under the water. The areas were obtained by means 
of planimeter and compasses and in small areas by estimate. 

Table I indicates area in square miles of kelp between Point Con- 
ception and San Diego, as shown on charts 5100 and 5200 of the Coast 
and Geodetic Survey. 

Table I. 









CHART NO. 5100. 














Area 








Area 


Sheet No. 


Kelp bed 
No. 


Charac- 
ter. 


square 

nautical 

miles. 


Sheet No. 


Kelp bed 
No. 


Charac- 
ter. 


square 
nautical 
miles. 








Sq. miles. 








Sq. miles. 


Sheet 18 


1 
2 


V. H. 
V. H. 


5.40 
2.30 


Sheet 17 . . 


18 
19 


M. 
M. 


0.22 
.34 






Sheet 17 


3 


M. 


.24 




20 


M. 
M. 


.22 

.76 




4 


M. 


.97 


Sheets 14, 15, and 16. 


21 




5 


M. 


.25 




22 


T. 


.10 




6 


M. 


.14 




23 


T. 


.07 




7 


M. 


.25 




24 


M. 


1.60 




8 


T. 


.37 




25 


M. 


.13 




9 


T. 


.08 




26 


T. 


.13 




10 


T. 


.26 




27 


H. 


2.19 




11 


T. 


.05 




28 


H. 


.44 




12 


T. 


.11 




29 


H. 


1.80 




13 


T. 


.13 




30 


H. 


.12 




14 


T. 


.06 




31 


H. 


.43 




15 


T 


.36 












16 
17 


T. 
M. 


.06 

.24 


Total 






/ « 19. 82 
\ 2 22.82 











1 Nautical miles. 
20827°— S. Doc. 190, 62-2- 



2 Statute miles. 



-14 



209 



210 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Table I — Continued. 

CHART NO. 5200. 









Area 


Sheet No. 


Kelp bed 
No. 


Charac- 
ter. 


square 

nautical 

miles. 








So. miles. 


Sheet 13 


1 


V. T. 


0.28 




2 


T. 


.01 




3 


T. 


.005 




4 


T. 


.004 




5 


T. 


.006 




6 


T. 


1.00 




7 


T. 


.11 




8 


H. 


1.10 


Sheets 9, 10, 11, and 


9 


M. 


1.22 


12. 


10 


T. 


2.20 




11 


M. 


3.90 




12 


M. 


2.90 




13 


M. 


2.55 




14 


M. 


.65 




15 


M. 


6.15 


# 


16 


T. 


1.00 




17 


T. 


.52 




18 


T. 


.25 




19 


T. 


1.31 



Sheet No. 



Sheets 9, 10, 11, and 
12. 



Sheet 13. 



Total. 



Kelp bed 



lpbe 
No. 



20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

25a 

26 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

33 

34 



Charac- 
ter. 



M. 

T. 

T. 

T. 
V. T. 

M. 
V. T. 

T. 

M. 

H. 

H. 
V. H. 
V. H. 

M. 

M. 

M. 



Area 

square 

nautical 

miles. 



Sq. miles. 

1.93 

.40 

.12 

.60 

.12 

9.25 

.25 

.31 

.76 

.25 

2.21 

1.75 

8.00 

.62 

.91 

2.04 



i 54. 085 
2 62. 26 





1 Nautical miles. 

GRAND 


TOTAL. 


2 Statute miles. 




Chart No. 






Square miles. 




Nautical. 


Statute. 


5100 


19.82 
54. 085 


22.82 


5200 


62.26 














73. 905 


85.08 


SUMMARY. 



Very heavy beds (V. H.) 

Heavy beds (H.) 

Medium beds (M.) 

Thin beds (T.) 

Very thin beds (V. T.)... 

Total 



20.01 
9.83 
43.35 
11.03 
.77 



84.99 



Harbors accessible to the " very heavy beds " are San Diego Bay ; 
Corral Harbor, San Nicolas ; Bechers Bay, Santa Rosa ; and Cuylers 
Harbor, San Miguel. 

Harbors accessible to " heavy kelp beds " are Smugglers Cove and 
Northwest Harbor, San Clemente; Bechers Bay and Johnsons Lee, 
Santa Rosa. 

Harbors accessible to "medium kelp beds" are mainland from 
Encinitas to Coxo Anchorage and Bechers Bay, Santa Rosa. 

Additional kelp beds are to be found along the Mexican coast off 
the Coronado Islands, Todas Santos Island, Banda Point, Santa 
Tomas Point, San Jose Point, San Jacinto Point, Geronimo Island 
in Rosario Bay, Cedros Island, and other points farther south. Ac- 
cording to local fishermen these beds extend to Magdalena Bay. The 
author has seen the beds as far south as Cedros Island. Many of 
the beds are heavy. These beds, however, all lie within the marine 
league of the Mexican coast. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 211 

On the trip samples of kelp were taken from the larger kelp beds, 
and these samples were dried on trays until they were of a leathery 
consistency; then stored in glass jars, and finally shipped in soil 
sacks to the laboratories of the Bureau of Soils at Washington, D. C. 
Specimens taken from various parts of the beds were weighed and 
dried whole. 

The kinds of kelp found were the Macrocystis pyrifera and 
Pelagophycus porra. Of these the Macrocystis forms the principal 
beds and is found abundantly over the area, while the Pelagophycus 
is only sparsely distributed over limited areas. 

The Macrocystis pyrifera, or " devil's apron," is a perennial kelp 
which locally reaches a length of about 100 feet. It consists of many 
stems growing from a root stock or holdfast which is attached to a 
stone at a depth of, usually, from 4 to 10 fathoms. The individual 
stems carry serrated edged leaves radiating from them. Each of 
the upper leaves has at its base a pear-shaped bladder which acts as 
a float. At the proximal end of the stem occur bladderless leaves 
upon which are produced the sori; the spores drop and form new 
plants. 

From casual observation and hearsay, when the top portion is cut 
off the plant will regenerate in about 60 days ; but new plants may 
take more than a year for the reestablishing of a bed, due to their 
spores forming in the autumn. 

The Macrocystis was found in beds off the rocky portions of the 
coast in depths between 4 and 12 fathoms, the greater portion being 
in not more than 10 fathoms. The shallowest depth found was 2\ 
fathoms in Johnsons Lee, Santa Rosa Island. The heaviest beds 
were found on the windward side of the more exposed islands, San 
Miguel, San Nicolas, and San Clemente ; also off Point Loma on the 
mainland. Much thinner beds were found off Santa Barbara Island, 
Santa Cruz, Anacapa, and along the mainland from Encinitas to 
Coxo Landing. Catalina was the only island practically devoid of 
kelp, there being only some very small patches on the windward side. 
In Tables I and II the heaviness of the beds is marked by means 
of the following scale: 

V. H. Very heavy: Matted and compact. 

H. Heavy: Compact. 

M. Medium : Individual plants. 

T. Thin : Plants distinct and well separated. 
V. T. Very thin : Plants scattered. 

Colors are used in the maps to indicate the same thing. 

Peculiar specimens of Macrocystis pyrifera were found off Ana- 
capa Island and at Johnson's Lee, Santa Rosa Island. In these the 
bulbs were spherical instead of being pear shaped. However, these 
occurred on plants with the pear-shaped bulbs, and would thus seem 
to be aberrant forms. 

The Pelagophycus porra or " elk kelp " is very limited in its 
distribution. It always occurs in deeper water than the Macrocystis 
pyrifera and is distinctly separated from it. The elk kelp is found 
in water 12 to 18 fathoms in depth ; it consists of a holdfast, securing 
it to a rock ; a long slender stem from 72 to 90 feet long ; an enlarged 
body, 6 to 8 feet long; a bulb, 6 to 8 inches in diameter, and two 
prongs, 5 to 8 feet long, on which are carried leaves 15 to 18 inches 



212 FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

in width and 12 to 14 feet long. The plant is an annual and re- 
produces by means of spores formed in sori on the large leaves. 

Contrary to general report, no Nereocystis gigantea or Ribbon 
kelp was found growing south of Point Conception. Specimens 
found on the shore have probably been drift specimens from north 
of the point. - 

Table II. — Dimensions and weights of various samples of kelp. 

MACKOCYSTIS PYRIFEKA, 

Weight : 

1 cubic yard — 

47 pounds, Point Loma Station 1 

26 pounds, La Jolla Station 3 

Weight : 

1 plant — 

50 pounds, Santa Barbara Station 9a 

81 pounds, Santa Barbara Station 9 

PELAGOPHYCUS POBEA. 

Weight : 

1 plant — 

42 pounds, Point Vincente, length, 96 feet. 
30 pounds, San Nicolas, length, 87 feet. 

The stations where samples were taken, together with soundings, 
are shown on the accompanying maps, also in Table III. 

The estimated quantity of kelp in the entire area, assuming 30 
pounds per cubic yard as a conservative estimate of the average 
weight, and allowing 93 per cent for evaporation, would be : 

Square yards in 1 statute mile 3, 097, 600 

Number of square miles S5 

Square yards 263, 296, 000 

Cutting 1 fathom deep 2 

Cubic yards 526, 592, 000 

Pounds per cubic yard 30 

Wet plant, pounds 15, 797, 760, 000 

7 per cent for ash, pounds 1, 105, 843, 200 

Divided by 2,000 (tons of ash) 552, 921 

The ash, which is nearly all potassium chloride, is about 7 per 
cent of the wet weight, whereas the air-dried kelp is from 15 to 20 
per cent of the wet plant. The air- dried kelp contains about 25 
per cent potassium salts. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 
Table III. — Stations where samples of kelp were collected. 



213 



No. 



Location. 



Latitude. Longitude. 



1.. 
2.. 
3.. 
4.. 

5.. 
6.. 

7.. 
8.. 
9.. 
9a. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
16a 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 



Point Loma Lighthouse 

Bird Rock 

La Jolla 

Encinitas 

Point Firman 

Malaga C^ve 

Point Las Pitas 

Summer Land 

Santa Barbara, outside edge 
Santa Barbara, inside edge. . 

Naples 

Fort Canyada (Quemada). . 

Little Coxo 

Anacapa 

Gull Islands 

Anglers Cove 

Tylers Bight 

Johnsons Lee 

San Nicolas 

Santa Barbara Island 

San Clemen te 

Smugglers Cove (Clemente) . 



32 39 30 
32 45 06 

32 51 30 

33 27 00 
33 43 12 

33 48 36 

34 19 20 
34 24 15 
34 24 00 
34 24 00 
34 25 12 
34 27 24 
34 26 15 
34 00 55 

33 56 30 

34 03 10 
34 00 33 
33 53 45 
33 16 50 
33 2S 06 
32 57 09 
32 48 12 



117 16 00 
117 17 00 
117 16 06 

117 43 06 

118 21 30 

118 24 26 

119 15 00 
119 35 45 
119 40 36 
119 40 36 

119 56 45 

120 07 00 
120 24 30 
119 23 22 

119 49 15 

120 21 00 
120 24 15 
126 00 00 
119 37 45 
119 01 06 
118 35 12 
118 23 00 



The local kelps have been analyzed by Mr. Balch, of Coronado. 
These analyses appear in a bulletin on "The chemistry of certain 
algae of the Pacific coast," Journal of Industrial and Engineering 
Chemistry, vol. 1, No. 2, December, 1909. 

There is at San Diego a company with a process already developed 
for which they have patents pending in this and other countries, 
whereby they claim to have solved the best method for producing 
potassium chloride and other by-products. They have a 6,000-ton- 
a-year plant ready for operation at Encinitas, and a 50-foot launch 
for cutting the kelp. This boat is not entirely successful at present, 
owing to the method of operation and lightness of gears. The cutting 
is by means of two 10- foot knives at a depth of one fathom below 
the surface, placed on opposite sides of the boat. After cutting, the 
kelp will be allowed to drift ashore. 

Problems that may affect the cutting of kelp are : 

1. The value of kelp beds as breakwaters for the coast line. This 
may be an important consideration near some of the harbors, such 
as San Diego and Santa Barbara. 

2. The fish that may use the beds as a refuge. 

3. The effect upon the food supply of these fish. 

4. The value of the beds as spawning grounds for many oceanic 
forms. 

However, the exposed channel islands could be used without harm 
to anyone, and as some of the large beds of kelp are located near 
them and as they have plenty of fresh water, work might be carried 
on on them successfully. 

W. C. Crandall, 
Biologist of the Marine Biological Association, La Jolla, Gal., 
and Captain of the Station Boat, Special Agent United 
States Department of Agriculture. 



Appendix O. 
BRIEF NOTES ON THE KELPS OF ALASKA. 



During the investigations upon which the Albatross was engaged 
during the months of June, July, and August, 1911, there was small 
opportunity to make observations regarding the abundance of kelp. 

In bad, foggy weather the ship would anchor in some sheltered 
bay until it cleared up. There opportunities were taken to examine 
the kelp. Whenever possible, specimens were collected and dried. 

North and west of Sitka kelp is not found growing abundantly. 
In some bays examined no kelp at all could be found. In others 
only two or three species. From Sitka southward the channels 
among the many islands along this part of the coast are more abund- 
antly supplied with kelp. On the trip northward no note was taken 
of the abundance or species, and on the trip southward the vicinity 
of Sitka was the only one examined. 

Rockweed and eelgrass are included in these observations. Rock- 
weed grows along the beach between the high and low tide levels 
and is found growing most luxuriantly on a rocky shore. Eelgrass 
grows just below the low-tide level in sheltered bays. The large 
species of kelp are found in deeper water. 

Dulse. Rhodymenia palmata linearis. Specimen No. 1. 

Along the beach near the Indian mission of Yakutat, Yakutat Bay, 
five Indians were engaged in sacking dulse which had been spread 
out to dry. In frosty weather it is washed upon the beach in suffi- 
cient quantities for a man or woman to gather two or three sacks of 
it in an hour. The Indians are very painstaking in gathering up 
every leaf, no matter how small, but as the dried leaves are worth 
$3 per sack, and three sacks of the fresh plants make one of the dry, 
this care is only natural. After a storm an unusual amount of dulse 
is washed upon the beach, and the Indians gather and clean it, after 
which they dry it by spreading it out thinly along a gravelly beach, 
or hang it over poles. When dried, dulse is not brittle, but rather 
rubbery. I found that I could chew it almost as easily as I could 
a rubber band. It is used as an article of diet by the Indians as 
well as by many white men. It is prepared by boiling and is served 
with seal or herring oil, and the Indians are very fond of it. It is 
also used as a medicine. 

At Sitka, Baranof Island, three different Indian huts were seen, 
which had from two to four long poles each, covered with drying 
dulse. The growing plants could not be located at Yakutat or at 
Sitka. 

214 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 215 

Nereocystis luetkeana P. & R. 

The head of Resurrection Bay, at Seward, was examined for kelp, 
but we were unable to find any of this species. Upon leaving the 
bay many single stalks were seen floating on the water. It was 
always seen floating singly, never in bunches. Three or four stalks 
will float for days within a few feet of each other, but never join 
together. 

At Sunday Bay a large patch was found growing off a rocky 
point which was exposed to the full force of the waves. One speci- 
men was pulled into the boat and measured. The length of the 
piece was 50 feet and it broke off about 5 feet from the end. The 
laminae measured 10 to 15 feet. At this place the water was from 
10 to 60 feet in depth. 

No specimens were seen near MacLeod or Zaikof Bays, Montague 
Island, Prince William Sound. At the following localities dead 
specimens were noted floating: Sitka, Baranof Island, Biorka Is- 
land, Cape Scott, and Union Bay, Vancouver Island, and at Seattle, 
Wash. 

N. luetkeana is found from Puget Sound to the Shumagin Islands. 
It grows in exposed places and only once in a while is any found in 
a protected spot. (Proc. Wash. Ac. Sci., Ill, 1901, p. 431.) 

Macrocystis pyrifera Ag. Specimen No. 7. 

Sheltered by the islands near Sitka, Baranof Island, many small 
patches of M. pyrifera were found. This species was not seen north 
of Sitka. At Biorka Island large patches grow along the eastern 
side of the island. This is the sheltered side. Symonds Bay was 
examined and the western or sheltered side was full of this species. 
M. pyrifera in these localities was growing in from 10 to 20 feet 
of water. 

Alaria lanceolata. Specimen No. 9. 

At Sitka this species was found growing thickly over the rocks 
just below the low-tide level. The islands nearly sheltered the 
places where the species was growing. The water was from 2 
feet in depth to as deep as I could see. 

Alaria lanceolata. (?) Specimen No. 6. 

At Symonds Bay, Biorka Island, this species of Alaria grew 
abundantly along the sheltered side of the bay, in water from 4 to 
10 feet deep. 

Alaria sp. (?) 

Along the most exposed parts of Sunday Bay a species of Alaria 
was found. Upon pulling in a stalk of it I found that it broke off 
7 or 8 feet below the surface of the water. There was a long cen- 
tral stem with a continuous leaf on each side of it. The stalk was 
6 to 8 inches in width. Depth of water, 10 to 20 feet. It was found 
growing with N. priapus and was not found in sheltered places. 

Holosaccion glandiformis. Specimen No. 10. 
CrystophyUum geminatum. Specimen No. 8. 

At Sitka, Baranof Island, a large floating specimen of this species 
was seen. Along the sheltered eastern side of Biorka Island many 
single plants were growing in 5 to 8 feet of water. 



216 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. • 

Specimen No. 11. — This specimen was picked up along the beach 
at Sitka. 

Specimens Nos. 4- and 5. — These two small species were found 
growing on the beach of Japonski Island. No. 4 has leaves with 
rough surfaces, while the leaves of No. 5 are smooth on the sur- 
faces. These species attain a height of 2 to 3 inches. 

Fucus evanescens macrocephala Kjellm. Specimen No. 2. 
Fucus evanescens Ag. forma, Kjellm. Specimen No. 3. 

These species of rockweed are found in all the localities exam- 
ined. They grow between the high and low tide levels and some- 
times plants are found almost out of reach of the water. Specimens 
Nos. 2, 3, and 10 were collected at Sitka. 

EELGRASS. 

The head of MacLeod Bay, Montague Island, is covered with eel- 
grass. It grows in 3 or 4 feet of water and is one of the best spawn- 
ing grounds for herring. 

Edward C. Johnston, 
Fishery Expert, U. S. S. Albatross. 



Appendix P. 
THE COMPOSITION OF KELPS. 



METHODS OF ANALYSIS. 

Preparation of sample. — The specimens received from Capt. 
Crandall (San Diego groves) were mostly large pieces of the plants, 
dried until efflorescence had begun and then stuffed into sample 
sacks. Further drying took place in transit and in the laboratory, 
so that when they were removed from the sacks they were in the 
form of hard balls or " wads," covered with their salts. It was 
difficult to disintegrate the tough, hard masses, and where that was 
attempted the salts fell off and had to be distributed between the 
portions as justly as was possible by guess. It was considered more 
desirable, therefore, to take entire balls of the material as samples. 
The only objection to this procedure was the large size of the sample 
obtained. The specimens received from Prof. Rigg (Puget Sound 
groves) were cut up into coarse pieces, and those from Prof. Mc- 
Farland (Monterey groves) into fine pieces, so that samples of 
small size were easily possible. Where effloresced salts had formed, 
these had generally collected in the bottom of the containers. An 
effort was made invariably to distribute the salts uniformly through 
the entire lot. 

The samples then chosen were placed on watch glasses or alumi- 
num trays and were dried at a temperature of 103° C. for varying 
lengths of time, always exceeding 7 hours. They were then ground 
in an iron mortar. If hard and woody, they were ground finally 
to a condition of extreme pulverulence in a ball mill, while if thin 
and papery they were ground to the desired degree of fineness in 
the mortar — to pass a sieve of 16 apertures per linear inch. 

Determination of potash, soluble salts, and ash,' incidentally or- 
ganic matter. — Samples, 0.5 gram, or thereabouts, in weight, weighed 
directly in tared platinum crucibles, were placed upon an asbestos- 
covered gauze, over a flame; the temperature of the gauze in its 
center was that of dull redness. At the temperature resulting in 
the crucibles the kelp began to distill and to evolve gases of a combus- 
tible nature which were ignited. On the disappearance of the flame 
at the mouth of the crucibles the samples were thoroughly stirred 
with a glass rod, and were heated further until all tarry matter 
was completely driven off. A loose black or gray powder of char- 
coal resulted. This was transferred completely to a 200 cubic 
centimeter beaker, containing 25 to 50 cubic centimeters of water, and 
was boiled vigorously, covered the while with a beaker cover, until 
the volume had been reduced to less than 25 cubic centimeters. The 

217 



218 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE TJ2TCTED STATES. 

resulting solution was filtered free of solid matter, the filtrate being 
caught in a platinum dish. The filter was washed thoroughly with 
hot water. 

To the filtrate was added a small volume of ammonium carbonate 
solution, to precipitate calcium carbonate, and it was then evaporated 
to dryness on a steam bath. Ammonia salts were then expelled by 
heating for an instant to dull redness. The residue was taken up 
with water, and the resulting solution was filtered into tared plati- 
num dishes; hydrochloric acid was added, the solutions were evap- 
orated to dryness on a steam bath, the dishes and their contents 
were heated for an instant to dull redness, and were cooled in a 
desiccator. The weight of the solids was taken as soluble salts. 

The soluble salts were dissolved in water, the solution was trans- 
ferred to a graduated flask and was diluted to 50 cubic centimeters. 
Portions of this, 10 cubic centimeters in volume, were subsequently 
analyzed for potassium by the chlorplatinic acid method. 

The residue of charcoal left on the filter after the first filtration 
was ignited to whiteness. Its weight was recorded as ash. 

The weight of the soluble salts, plus that of the ash, when sub- 
tracted from the original weight of the sample gives a value which 
obviously represents organic matter. 

Iodine. — Portions of the ground material, 2 grams in weight, 
were incinerated and lixiviated in the manner described in a fore- 
going paragraph. 

The filtered solution was transferred to a separatory funnel of 
250 cubic centimeters capacity containing 10 cubic centimeters of a 
solution of sulphuric acid (10 c. c. cone. H,S0 4 : 90 c. c. H 2 0) and 
10 to 15 cubic centimeters pure carbon tetrachloride. The solution 
was titrated with a solution of potassium permanganate, previously 
standardized against pure potassium iodide, the manipulation during 
the standardization being identical with that employed in the actual 
analysis. 1 

The persistence in the solutions of the pink color of the permanga- 
nate was taken as the end point. 

The potassium iodide used for the purpose of standardization was 
purified by recrystallization. It was dried for several hours at 107° 
C, and was cooled and preserved in a desiccator. One gram of this 
material was dissolved in 1 liter of water. This was titrated in 
volumes of 100 to 5 cubic centimeters, and in smaller volumes pre- 
pared by diluting a measured portion of it to definite volumes and 
by taking portions of the more dilute solution for titration. Thus 
values were obtained through a range which represented a percent- 
age, on the basis of a 2-gram sample, of 5 to 0.05. The values ob- 
tained were quite consistent down to the extremely small samples, 
where the amount of permanganate solution necessary to give a 
coloration, perhaps a tenth of a cubic centimeter, introduced an ap- 
preciable error. On that account the method lacks accuracy in the 
determination of extremely small amounts of iodine, unless, indeed, 
the amount of permanganate necessary to effect an end point is de- 
termined and a correction is made therefor. 

This method, which is based on the direct titration of potassium 
iodide by permanganate, is applicable only in the absence of other 

1 Cf. Bray and MacKay, J. Am. Chem. Soc, 82, 1139 (1910). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 219 

substances oxidizable by permanganate. That this condition is ob- 
served in the method of analysis described is indubitable. The in- 
cineration of the kelp is performed at too low a temperature, prob- 
ably, for the carbon present to reduce, for example, the sulphates 
present to sulphides or the phosphates to phosphides; and, further- 
more, with stirring, the excess of oxygen is sufficient to reoxidize those 
substances if formed. All organic matter undoubtedly is completely 
broken down. The first drop of permanganate effects a liberation of 
iodine which imparts a distinct color to the solution, and when the 
brown of iodine no longer appears the pink of the permanganate 
persists. 

After one has acquired some experience with the method, the 
relative iodine content of the samples undergoing analysis can be 
followed by noting the intensity of the coloration of the carbon 
tetrachloride layer. The entire absence of iodine is very sharply 
indicated in this way, and its presence in very small amounts as well. 

The method, then, is recommended for use where speed in the 
analysis is desired, and it is fully believed that it is capable of giving 
accurate results under the right conditions. 



220 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



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222 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

DISCUSSION OF ANALYTICAL DATA. 

In the second column are given the serial numbers of the kelp 
samples examined. It will be noted that there are four series, con- 
sisting of the four coUections of samples secured during the summer 
of 1911. The series designated by the capital S is from the Crandall 
collection, from the extreme southern coast of California. The other 
three are designated by the initial letter of the surname of the col- 
lector- M, McFarland, whose samples are from the Monterey Bay 
region: K, Kigg, who surveyed the Puget Sound district; and J, 
Johnston, of the Albatross, through whom the specimens of Alaskan 
kelps were secured. , 

In the third column are recorded the names of the kelps analyzed. 
It will be noted that while kelps from the Puget Sound survey in- 
clude numerous varieties, those from the most southern survey 
(Crandall's) include only two varieties, the two giant kelps ot that 
region, Macrocystis and Pelagophycus. 

In the fourth column are indicated the locations from which any 
particular specimen was taken. In many instances the locus is given 
with precision. Crandall has marked on the maps as stations the 
points from which his samples were taken and has placed each 
station in degrees, minutes, and seconds. ' 

When the sample examined was of some special part o± the plant, 
that fact is indicated in the fifth column. Where no statement is 
made concerning the nature of the sample it should be understood 
that it is composed of the leafy parts, where the kelp is one of the 
laro-e varieties, or of the entire plant where the specimen is a young 
plant or is one of the smaller kelps. Thus the samples of the south- 
ern Macrocystis consisted, in practically every instance, of branches, 
or fronds, bearing leaves and floats. 

In the sixth column the potassium content of the kelps is recorded 
as the oxide, K 2 0. In a later column it is calculated to potassium 
chloride, which more nearly represents the condition in which it 
actually' occurs in the plant. Here is recorded the potassium content 
of every sample analyzed. It should be borne in mind that the ma- 
jority of these varieties can not be considered as a commercial source 
of potash, not on account of their low potash content, for even the 
ones containing the smallest percentage of potash contain more oi 
that substance than do many of the Atlantic kelps used for centuries 
as a source of potash for agricultural purposes, but because they are 
of the smaller varieties and occur in smaller amounts. It is only in 
the case of the giant kelps and a few smaller ones occurring in large 
amounts that the average potash content is of any moment. The 
varieties Macrocystis, Nereocystis, Pelagophycus, and Postelsia alone 
should be considered. These show an average content of 23.4 per 
cent potassium chloride and 0.29 per cent iodine. 

The soluble salts in the ninth column represent the weights of the 
combined sodium and potassium chlorides and sulphates. The solu- 
tion from which these were crystallized had been treated with am- 
monium carbonate to precipitate calcium. Magnesium salts are also 
included. In the test analyses it was found that there were but neg- 
ligible amounts of both calcium and magnesium salts in the solution 
obtained on lixiviating the charred kelp. Whether it is safe to con- 
clude that the lixiviate from the char of every kelp is so free from 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 223 

calcium and magnesium salts is an open question. It is the writer's 
opinion that the question is answerable in the affirmative. In very 
rare cases did the addition of ammonium carbonate to the lixiviate 
produce any precipitations of calcium carbonate whatever. This 
shows a constant freedom from calcium salts and may be taken, by 
analogy, as an indication of a similar absence of magnesium salts. 

In every instance where a test was made sulphates were found to 
be present. 

In the tenth column the "estimated" sodium salts are recorded. 
These values .are mere estimates and may, and in some cases most 
probably do, distort the truth. They are obtained by subtracting 
the percentage of potassium chloride from the percentage of soluble 
salts. Were both potassium and sodium present as chloride alone, 
in the absence of magnesium these values should be accurate. It is 
known, however, that considerable amounts of sulphate are present. 
This has been shown by Balch. To calculate the potassium to chlo- 
ride, when it is present wholly or in part as sulphate, throws the 
entire error introduced upon the sodium and makes the latter appear 
disproportionately large. The loss in weight on charring and igni- 
tion, converted to the percentage basis, is given in the eleventh col- 
umn as organic matter. This is obtained by subtracting the sum 
of the soluble salts and ash from the weight of the sample taken. 

The ash (twelfth column) is not the inorganic residue obtained 
on igniting the kelp as the ignition is usually conducted, but is the 
result of the incineration of the char after it has been thoroughly 
lixiviated. It is the water insoluble, inorganic constituents of the 
kelp, and consists of silica, resulting largely, probably, from sea 
sand entangled with the kelp; calcium carbonate (or oxide, depend- 
ing on the intensity of the ignition), from the plant itself, or from 
minute barnacles or other calciferous organisms growing on or en- 
tangled among them ; magnesia ; small amounts of sodium and potas- 
sium salts, present through imperfect lixiviation, and such acid radi- 
cals as the phosphate and possibly the sulphate. Carbonates would 
result from the combustion, with any free alkali or alkaline dearth 
present. It may be noted in this connection that the lixiviate gives 
an alkaline reaction when tested with litmus, which fact indicates 
that there is not enough of the nonvolatile, inorganic acid radicals to 
neutralize completely the bases present. 

SEAWEEDS OF VARIOUS ORIGINS. 

In the days of the iodine-from-kelp industry the composition of 
marine algse was studied from the viewpoint of that industry and by 
analysts interested in that industry. In later years interest has 
centered rather on the manurial value of the sea plants. Accordingly, 
reports on the subject are to be found in the literature of the agricul- 
tural experiment stations. 

Perhaps the most striking result of a cursory examination of the 
various plants analyzed is the wide variation in their composition. 
A considerable variation would result, anyway, because of the fact 
that the taking of samples was not done in accordance with standard- 
ized methods; that, in instances, the saline constituents may have 
been — and doubtless were — removed partially through leaching hav- 
ing taken place before the samples were collected, and that the per- 



224 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE "UNITED STATES. 

sonal equation of the analyst would introduce a disparity in the re- 
sults of analysis of samples of similar composition. 

(1) The various varieties of kelps vary widely in their relative 
as well as actual contents of inorganic salts. 

(2) The ratio between the amounts of inorganic salts in the sea- 
weeds is not the same as in sea water, showing a selective absorption. 
Thus potassium may equal or exceed sodium ; in some instances, nota- 
bly among the Pacific kelps, potassium salts are present almost to the 
exclusion of sodium salts and iodine exceeds bromine. In sea water, 
it is remembered, sodium is present in very much greater amounts 
than potassium, and bromine than iodine. 

(3) One may expect to find in any seaweed the following: Potas- 
sium, sodium, calcium, and magnesium, and the nonmetals chlorine, 
bromine, iodine, phosphorus, and sulphur, in addition to those enter- 
ing more commonly into the composition of organic compounds, 
viz, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. 

(4) Variations in composition are to be found between specimens 
of the same species from different localities, of the same species grow- 
ing closely together, of the same species at different ages, and very 
marked differences between the different parts of a single plant. 

When these variables are considered, together with those men- 
tioned in a former paragraph, it is seen that concordant results in the 
analysis of sea plants is scarcely to be expected. In the succeeding 
paragraphs will be quoted analyses of seaweeds from various parts of 
the world. While the analyses are chosen to a certain extent at ran- 
dom, they are believed to be typical. 

Analyses of American kelps are divided into two groups, those 
from the Atlantic and those from the Pacific coast. In the latter 
group are recorded those performed in this laboratory. 

Scotland. — The analysis of a specimen of Scotch kelp ash is given 
in the following table : 

Table II. — Analysis of Scotch kelp ash. 



Per cent. 

K s SO« 23. 08 

KC1 !• 45 

NaCl 19- 13 

Na 2 C0 3 6. 48 



Per cent. 

Insoluble matter 43. 71 

Water 6. 22 

Potash (K 2 0) 13.40 

Iodine 1 .18 



Scotch kelp ash is compared with that from California (analyses 
by Balch) : 

Potassium salts: Percent. 

Scotch 24. 53 

California 71. 8 

Ratio, 1 : 3. 

England.- — The following results are from analyses of three varie- 
ties of the Fuci, and are published by Barlow : 2 

1 4.14 pounds per ton. 

2 Cooper Laboratory of Economic Research, Watford; J. Board Agric, 17, 832 (1911). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 
Table III. — Analysis of Fuci. 



225 



Constituent. 


F. nodosus. 


F. sorratus. 


F. vesicu- 
losus. 




Per cent. 
73.99 
26.01 

1.78 

4.47 

.29 


Per cent. 
76.97 
23.03 

2.88 

5.00 

.55 


Per cent. 
71.35 




28.65 




2.29 




6.29 




.45 







The content of alkalies — calculated as oxides of sodium and potas- 
sium — of the kelp ash is given in Table IV: 

Table IV. — Analyses of Fuci for alkali. 



Plant. 


NaaO 


K 3 


Total. 




Per cent. 
23.19 
17.76 
18.72 


Per cent. 
17.19 
21.69 
21.94 


Per cent. 
40.38 




39.45 




40.66 







The analyses reported in Table V were made by Russell. 1 
Table V. — Analyses of seaweeds from British Isles. 



Constituent. 



Fucus 
cera- 
noides, 
Croyde, 
North 
Devon, 
July, 1908 



Fucus 
canicu- 
latus, 
Croyde, 
North 
Devon, 
July ,1908 



Fucus 
serratus, 
Thanet, 

Kent, 
Feb. ,1909 



Fucus, 

Jersey, 

Mar. ,1907 



Laminaria. 



Thanet, 

Kent, 

Feb., 1909. 



Jersey, 
Mar., 1907 



Green weeds. 



Cladc- 
phora and 

ulva, 
Croyde, 

North 

Devon, 
July, 1908. 



Ulva 

Thanet, 

Kent, 

Feb., 1909. 



Organic matter . . 

Nitrogen 

Total ash 

Sand 

Pure ash 

Phosphoric acid. 
Potash 



Per cent. 

69.80 

1.25 

30.20 

5.15 

25.05 

.03 

3.80 



Per cent 

76.00 

1.53 

24.00 

2.67 

21.33 

.03 

2.52 



Per cent . 

75.16 

2.33 

24.84 

3.73 

21.11 

.05 

3.70 



Per cent. 

73.86 

2.25 

26.14 

1.24 

24.90 

.66 

5.88 



Per cent , 
61.66 
2.14 
38.34 
13.15 
25.19 
.06 
4.74 



Per cent. 

63.59 

1.48 

36.41 

1.14 

35.27 

.65 

5.76 



Per cent. 



Per cent. 



2.70 



.03 

2.16 



The samples of Fucus from Jersey and from Croyde and the Cladophora 
were cut from the rocks; the Thanet sample of Fucus, the Laminaria, and the 
Ulva were thrown up by the tides. . 

The composition of seaweed apparently varies with the seasons. 
This fact is brought out in analyses of Jersey seaweeds by Tom 
(Notes on Farm Chemistry in Jersey, 1905). These are given in 
Table VI. 



1 Cf. Leaflet 254, Board Agric. and Fisheries, p. 3. 
20827°— S. Doc. 190, 62-2 15 



226 FEKTILIZEE KESOUECES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

Table VI. — Analyses of Jersey seaweeds. 





Fresh weed, per 
cent. 


Percentage composition of dry matter. 


Time of cutting. 


Water. 


Dry 
matter. 


Organic 
matter. 


Nitrogen. 


Ash. 


Potash. 


Lime. 


Phos- 
phoric 
acid. 


Fucus (cut): 


Per cent. 
77.4 
73.4 
76.6 

87.0 
78.0 
82.0 


Per cent. 
22.6 
26.6 
23.4 

13.0 
22.0 
18.0 


Per cent. 
81.4 
79.5 
79.3 

65.0 
74.0 

81.7 


Per cent. 
1.91 
1.98 
1.16 

3.06 
1.94 
.96 


Per cent. 
18.6 
20.5 
20.7 

35.0 
25.6 
19.3 


Per cent. 
2.62 
2.26 
2.50 

3.45 
3.93 
2.34 


Per cent. 
1.3 
2.1 
1.3 

1.96 
1.70 
1.65 


Per cent. 
0.36 




.20 




.85 


Laminaria (drift): 


1.29 




1.70 




1.65 







Scotland, England (for iodine only). — The following table (Table 
VII) gives results of analyses of various sea plants, by different 
analysts, for the element iodine. 1 The figures represent per cent 
iodine in the dry plant : 

Table VII. — Iodine content of various seaweeds. 



Plant. 


Sarphat. 


Schweitzer. 


Godechens. 


Wallace. 


Zenger. 


Stanford. 


1 


Laminaria saccharina 


Per cent. 

0.135 

.230 
.124 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 
0.625 


Per cent. 

0.444 

.288 

.0565 

.0396 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 
( 0. 4535 
\ .2946 
.2794 


? 


3.880 
.058 




? 


.177 
.074 




.0856 


4 






.0572 


5 




.001 
.0005 






.0297 


6 












.0457 


7 












.0378 


8 














.2131 


q 














.0892 


in 














.2810 


n. 


Cladophora glomerata 










.0227 



















The two results given in the Stanford column for Laminaria digi- 
tata are for samples of stems and fronds, respectively; the former 
figure is the average of 18 specimens and the latter of 23 specimens. 
Samples Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 are the average of 5, 12, 4, and 8 specimens, 
respectively. 

The specimens analyzed by Stanford were taken from Larne, Bal- 
lina, Sligo, Galway, and Skibereen, in Ireland; Shetland, Call, 
Colonsay, Tobermory, Vallay, Baleshare, Burreray, Neisker, Storno- 
way, Skye, Tyree, Kilcreggen, Iona, Dunbar, and Fife, in Scotland; 
Scarborough, Weymouth, and Worthing, in England; Peele. in the 
Isle of Man; and also from Norway, Denmark, and Iceland. The 
first five varieties are those which were employed in making kelp ash. 

The origin of the specimens examined by the other analysts is not 
given. 

France. — Marchand and Knauss found that iodine in the Fuci 
varied between 0.66 and 5.35 per cent. Marchand collected speci- 
mens in the harbor of Fecamp which contained 0.2 to 1.01 per cent 
bromine, 6.07 to 15.15 per cent potash, 14.23 to 38 per cent soda. 

1 Stanford, Chem. News, 35, 172 (1877). Sec p. 173. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



227 



These results have been confirmed by Cuniasse (Chem. Zentr., 1900, 
2 (4) , 286) , who has divided the algae of that region into two classes, 
as follows: 



Constituent. 



Bromine 
Iodine... 
Potash. . 
Soda 



Class 1. 



Per cent. 

0.19- 0.42 

.6- 1.4 

8. 7-23 

8. 0-26. 5 



Class 2. 



Per cent. 
0.04- 0.16 

.07- .16 
11.0-18.2 

8. 5-16. 25 



Japan.— Kinch has made a study of some of the principal sea- 
weeds of Japan that are used as food. The following quotation 
is from his report, entitled " Contributions to the Agricultural Chem- 
istry of Japan." 1 Numerous pertinent and interesting comments 
are included in the quotation. 

Nori and Asaknsa Nori are the names specially given to Porphyra vulgaris 
(Agardh.), the alga which supplies the principal part of that sold in England 
under the name of laver, in Ireland as sloke, and in Scotland as slaak. This 
is as is well known, cultivated in the shallow water of Tokyo Bay on branches 
of oak, Quercus serratus, and other trees, the crop being gathered m the winter 
months- in the summer it becomes too tough for use. The water at Asakusa 
has for nearly three centuries been too fresh for its cultivation in the river 
there, but the' name is still retained. 

45. Asakusa Nori, Porphyra vulgaris (Agardh).— Best kind from Omori, near 
Tokyo; 100 grams cost 36 sen. 

46. Asalcusa Nori, Porphyra vulgaris (Agardh).— Medium quality from 
Omori. near Tokyo; 100 grams cost 29 sen. _ 

47. Asakusa Nori, Porphyra vulgaris (Agardh).— Common variety from 
Omori, near Tokyo ; 100 grams cost 3 sen. 

48. Nori, purple color, Porphyra vulgaris (Agardh.).— From Uwagori, Iyo, 
Yehime ken; 100 grams cost 27 sen. 

49. Nori, purple color, Porphyra vulgaris (Agardh).— From Shikichi-gon, 
Ensliu, Shidzouka ken; 100 grams cost 18 sen. 

50. Nori, green laver, probably Phycoseris australis (Kutzmg).— Iroin Ise; 
100 grams cost 5 sen. 

Table VIII. — Percentage composition of Japanese seaweeds. 



Constituent. 



Water 

Ash 

Fiber 

Nitrogenous substances 

Nonnitrogenous substances 

Containing nitrogen 

Ash contains — 

Silica • 

Phosphoric acid 

Potash 



Per cent. 
14.40 
9.45 
5.50 
26.14 
44.51 



100. 00 



1.40 
14.07 
34.50 



Per cent. 
12.60 
6.80 
5.66 
18.11 
56.83 



100. 00 



.60 

13.77 
31.50 



Per cent. 
19.40 
11.90 
7.46 
4.4S 
57.71 



100. 00 



7.80 
6.05 
11.15 



Per cent. 
12.98 
8.68 
9.83 
17.41 
51.10 



100. 00 



6.40 
13.27 
35.19 



Per oent. 
12.91 
8.64 
9.98 
19.88 
48.59 



100.00 



6.65 
14.16 

33.83 



Per cent. 
15.61 
16.73 
8.71 
6.32 
52.63 



100. 00 



1.96 
7.25 

32.27 



The green laver is inferior to the purple. 

It will be noticed that the price is very nearly in the same order as the 
quantity of nitrogen, which decreases with the age of the plant. 

Another common seaweed, kobu, is Lammaria saccharina (Lamouroux) or 
sweet tangle, or a closely allied species, L. japonica (Aresch.). This is closely 



i Trans. Asiatic Society of Japan, S (III), 369 (1880). 



228 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



allied to the common tangle L. digitata (Lamour.), known also in different 
parts of the United Kingdom as sea girdles, redware and sea wand. Tangle 
is the species which supplies the largest amount of kelp. The stem is used 
for knife-handles and the plant often as a hygrometer in England. Both 
L. saccharina and L. digitata contain a peculiar kind of sugar apparently 
identical with that occurring in manna and in some other plants, called 
mannite. Sweet tangle contains 12 to 15 per cent of this sugar. 

51. Kobu. — From Tezo. 

52. Kobu. — From Toshiki-gori, Wakasa, Shiga ken. 

Table IX. — Percentage composition of kobu. 



Constituent. 



52 



Water 

Ash 

Fiber 

Nitrogenous substances 

Nonnitrogenous substances 

Containing nitrogen 

Ash contains— 

Silica 

Phosphoric acid 

Potash 



Per cent. 


Per cent. 


26.80 


24.82 


22.50 


18.53 


9.33 


4.97 


7.79 


6.02 


33.58 


45.66 


100. 00 


100. 00 


1.23 


.95 


3.94 


Trace. 


4.43 


2.96 


27.00 


31.77 



Kobu is also used as an emblem of a present. 

Another species is wakame, Alaria pinnatiflda (Harvey) ; its British con- 
gener, A. esculenta (Greville), is known in various parts of Scotland as blad- 
derlocks or badderlocks (balderlocks), henware, honeyware, and murlins. 
It is used as food on the coast of Scotland and Ireland and in Denmark and 
Iceland, and is one of the best of the esculent alga?. Arame, or kokusai, is per- 
haps Capea elongata; awo-nori, or ohashi-nori, is Enteromorpha compressa 
(Grev.), a species growing in fresh and salt water, especially on tidal rocks. 

Hijiki, a species of Cystoseirai (?), is found on all the coasts; that from 
Ise is most valued. Besides these many other species are used to a less ex- 
tent, and tokoroten-gusa, sometimes called agar-agar, Gelidium corneum 
(Lamour.), is largely employed in the manufacture of kanten or tokoroten, vege- 
table isinglass. 

53. Wakame. — One hundred grams cost 6.5 sen. 

54. Arame. — From Shinano; 100 grams cost 1.2 sen. 

55. Awo-nori. — From O-hashi, Tokyo; 100 grams cost 7.5 sen. 

56. Hijiki. — From Iwachi-mura, Kamogori, Idzu ; 100 grams cost 2.5 sen. 

Table X. — Percentage composition of certain seaweed products. 



Constituent. 


53 


54 


55 


56 


Water 


Per cent. 

15.11 

33.82 

2.16 

8.29 

40.62 


Per cent. 

13.17 

24.74 

7.40 

8.99 

45.09 


Per cent. 
13.60 
10.42 
10.58 
12.41 
52.99 


Per cent. 
16.40 


Ash 


16.20 




17.06 




8.42 




41.92 








100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


100. 00 


Containing nitrogen 


1.32 

Trace. 

2.61 

21.00 


1.42 

6.97 

11.22 
27.98 


1.93 

2.20 
2.37 


1.33 


Ash contains — ■ 


1.91 




2.20 




32.55 









The cultivation of seaweed is carried on extensively in some places, and it 
is said that a great number of varieties arise from the different trees which are 
used as the feeding ground of the plants, which include different varieties of 
oak, other deciduous trees, and bamboos. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



229 



American, Atlantic. — The following table contains results of analy- 
ses of five varieties of seaweeds from Milford, Conn. The analyses 
were made at the Connecticut State Experiment Station, and appear 
in the annual report of that station for 1890. (See p. 72.) 

The samples analyzed were as follows: (1) Broadstalked rock- 
weed, Ascophyllum nodosum; (2) flatstalked rockweed, Fucus vesi- 
culosa; (3) a coarse " sponge," species not determined; (4) a finely- 
branching seaweed, species not determined; (5) " Irish moss," Ghon- 
drus crispus. 

Table XI. — Analysis of Connecticut seaiceeds. 



Constituent. 



1 


2 


3 


4 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


Per cent. 


82.71 


84.34 


86.13 


81.39 


13.52 


12.09 


5.46 


12.72 


3.97 


3.57 


8.41 


5.89 


.53 


.48 


.58 


.73 


.61 


.54 


.16 


1.30 


.90 


.85 


.72 


.58 


.30 


.27 


.08 


.2:3 


.24 


.23 


.14 


.18 


.10 


.02 


.23 


.12 


.10 


.09 


.14 


.18 


.82 


.67 


.17 


.84 


.80 


.82 


.77 


.96 


.12 


.16 


6.17 


1.72 



Water 

Volatile matter 

Pure ash 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Oxide iron and aluminium 

Phosphoric acid 

Sulphuric acid 

Chlorine 

Silica 



Per cent. 

80.84 

14.43 

4.73 

.77 

1.00 



.17 
".'54 



Table XII contains results of analyses of rockweed, green and dry, 
of wet kelp, and of seaweed ashes. 1 

Table XII. — Analyses from Massachusetts State Experiment Station. 



Constituent. 


Rockweed. 


Wet kelp. 


Seaweed 


Green. 


Dry. 


ashes. 


Moisture (at 100° C.) 


Per cent. 
68.50 
23.70 


Per cent. 
10.68 
55.75 
7.66 
.21 
4.89 
7.90 
2.75 
1.45 
10.40 


Per cent. 
88.04 
2.26 


Per cent. 
1.47 


Ash 






6.06 








4.37 








.92 








8.76 








.30 




.96 


.26 






63.65 


Sulphuric acid 






2.98 










6.60 


! 









The seaweeds of the Atlantic coast have been investigated espe- 
cially by Wheeler and Hartwell of the Rhode Island Experiment 
Station. For their interesting discussion of the agricultural value 
and chemical composition see Bulletin 21, 1893. 

The following table (Table XIII) is quoted from this bulletin. 
It gives analyses of seaweed from the vicinity of Point Judith, B. L, 
and by other analysts of plants from certain other localities on the 
coast of New England and of Europe. 



1 Cf. Mass. State Expt. Sta. Record, 1887, p. 223. 



230 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Table XIII. — Wheeler and HartwelVs compilation of analyses of seaweeds. 



Name of seaweed, botanical 
and common. 


Month of col- 
lection. 


Nitro- 
gen. 


P2O5 


K 2 


CaO 


MgO 


Source of specimen. 






Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 


Per ct. 




Ascophyllum (fucus) nodo- 


January 


1.50 


0.38 


2.93 


2.03 


1.54 


Rhode Island. 


sum; Round-stalked rock- 


March 


1.18 


.38 


2.77 


2.10 


1.50 


Do. 


weed. 


September . . 


.64 


.30 


2.74 


2.28 


1.54 


Do. 








.22 


1.46 


1.86 


1.59 










.32 


3.77 


1.79 


1.24 


Scotland (?). 






1.75 


.38 


3.16 


1.77 


1.88 








3.06 


.58 


3.52 


1.74 


1.39 


Connecticut. 


Fucus v esiculo su s ; 


January 


2.03 


.45 


2.05 


1.67 


1.24 


Rhode Island. 


Flat-stalked rockweed. 


March 


1.93 


.60 


2.77 


2.04 


1.34 


Do. 




September.. 


.82 


.40 


3.14 


1.84 


1.22 


Do. 








.19 


2.12 


1.36 
2.07 


.99 
1.87 


Liverpool. 
Denmark. 








.84 


2.64 


1.15 


1.67 






1.09 


.37 


3.61 


1.54 


1.01 


Scotland (?). 








.45 


1.32 


7.74 


2.50 


Baltic Sea. 






1.09 


.35 


1.40 


2.42 


1.71 


NorthGermany(?) 




March 


3.06 


.57 


3.45 


1.73 


1.47 


Connecticut. 






1.22 


.34 


.95 


2.22 


1.01 


Normandy. 


Laminaria saccharina; Rib- 


January 

March 


1.85 
1.99 












bon weed, kelp, tangle. 


.46 


2.83 


2.76 


1.55 


Do. 




September . . 


.94 


.35 


.80 


3.28 


1.39 


Do. 






1.75 


.58 


1.10 


1.49 


.71 


Normandy. 




August or 




.93 


5.02 


8.24 


3.03 


Baltic Sea. 




September. 














Laminaria digitata; broad 


January 


2.26 


.58 


3.92 


2.87 


1.68 


Rhode Island. 


ribbonweed, broad-leafed 


March 

September. . 


2.27 
1.34 










Do. 


kelp, devil's apron, tan- 


.23 


.68 


2.57 


1.31 


Do. 


gle. 






.48 


4.18 


2.21 


1.39 








1.07 


.54 


1.18 


1.74 


1.04 


Normandy. 


Rhodymenia palmata; dulse, 


January 


3.50 


.84 


9.95 


6.35 


.97 


Rhode Island. 


dillesk. 


September.. 


1.92 


.53 


5.84 


.63 


.33 


Do. 


Phyllophora membranifolia . . 


January 


3.49 


.39 


2.28 


15.71 


2.03 


Do. 




March 


2.78 


.41 


2.80 


19.20 


2.34 


Do. 




September.. 


3.36 


.48 


3.62 


8.99 


1.66 


Do. 


Chondrus crispus; Irish 


January 


2.84 


.69 


5.11 


2.68 


1.37 


Do. 


moss or Carrageen moss. 


March 


3.10 


.57 


3.67 


1.09 


1.49 


Do. 




September.. 


1.32 


.40 


3.69 


2.07 


1.37 


Do. 








.08 


3.57 


1.48 


2.34 


Cattegat. 




March 

January 


4.02 
1.57 


.89 
.78 


5.22 

4.92 






Connecticut. 


Cladostephus verticillus 


3.02 


1.25 


Rhode Island. 


Polyides rotundus 


September.. 


3.30 


.60 


1.44 


2.40 


.72 


Do. 


A hnfeldtia plicata 


do 


1.69 


.39 


3.50 


.88 


1.11 


Do. 



American, Pacific. — Balch's analyses 1 of the Pacific kelps are of 
especial interest. His investigation pertained to the composition 
of the various parts of the three most conspicuous of the giant kelps — 
Pelagophycus, Nereocystis luetheana, and Macrocystis pyrifera. His 
results are given as follows : 

(1) Pelagophycus porra. Young plant. 

Portions of the bulb (bladder) were allowed to dry, the effloresced 
salts were shaken off, and the remaining material was charred and 
lixiviated. The analysis of the lixiviate gave : 



Per cent. 

K 34. 91 

Na 11. 74 

CI 51. 01 



S0 4 - 
CO3- 



Per cent. 
___1.33 
.__ 1.01 



The analysis of the effloresced salts gave : 



Per cent. 

EL 51. 993 

CI 47. SS 



Per cent. 

SO, 0. 097 

CO3 . 030 



*J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1, 777 (1909). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 



231 



The table of results shows that the effloresced salts are practically- 
pure potassium chloride. The specimen as a whole gave 62.67 per 
cent of alkaline salts, of which 78 per cent was potassium chloride, 
equaling 48.85 per cent of the original sample. There was about 
0.1 per cent iodine present. 

The examination of the bladder and apophysis of a mature plant 
showed the presence of 47.76 per cent potassium chloride. The efflo- 
resced salts proved to be 98.72 per cent potassium chloride. 

The analysis of the branches of a mature plant — the solid, flattened 
stems — having petioles and small portions of the tough bases of the 
leaves still attached, showed crude salts to be present, representing 
50 per cent of the weight of the sample. 

As we approach the leaves we find the percentage of sulphate augments, and 
we find iodine also increasing. In the salts of bladder and apophysis, iodine 
rarely exceeds 0.1 per cent. In the salts from the arms we find 0.32S per cent. 

In the leaves was found 28.31 per cent crude salts, of which 49.24 
per cent was potassium chloride and 12.27 per cent potassium sulphate 
(=61.51 per cent potassium salts) ; iodine, 0.85 per cent. 

(2) Nereocystis luetkeana. 

The analysis of the effloresced salts from bladder and apophysis, 
equal to 58.51 per cent of the total weight, showed the combined 
weight of sodium and potassium therein to be 50.22 per cent, the 
ratio of sodium to potassium being 1 to 4. Iodine was present 
slightly exceeding 0.1 per cent. The stem afforded 33.51 per cent 
salts, of which 0.39 to 0.41 per cent was iodine. The leaves from a 
young plant gave 44.53 per cent salts, of which potassium salts com- 
posed 71 per cent (K=36.55 per cent). 



Per cent. 

K 36. 55 

I .117 

CI 46. 52 



SO-4- 

CO-3- 



Per cent. 
— _ 5. 26 
___ . 52 



(3) Macrocystis pyrifera. 

The analysis of the salts (=21.80 per cent) obtained from the 
leaves of the Macrocystis gave the following results : 



Per cent. 

CI 40. 44 

I . 70 



Per cent. 

SO* 11. 20 

CO-3 1. 08 



The stems afforded 29.32 per cent salts. 

Table XIV. — Batch's analyses of Macrocystis pyrifera. 





Old plant, 
fragmen- 
tary leaves. 


Less ma- 
ture plant, 

perfect 

leaves. 


co 3 


Per cent. 

3.96 

5.08 

42.12 

.64 

8.79 

67.76 


Per cent. 
3.43 


so* 


12.50 


CI 


38.05 


I 


.507 


K 3 SO< 




KC1 









J. W. TURRENTINE. 



Appendix Q. 
THE TECHNOLOGY OF THE SEAWEED INDUSTRY. 



A discussion of the technology of the seaweed industry logically 
begins with a consideration of the technology of the propagation of 
sea plants. 

Algae culture in Japan is conducted on a large scale and consti- 
tutes an important industry. In Japan, however, seaweeds are 
valued more on account of their food value; and, as is always the 
case in growing plants for food, special varieties are especially valued 
and, consequently, cultivated. 

Algae- cultural methods in vogue in Japan are fully described in a 
paper by Dr. Hugh M. Smith, of the United States Bureau of 
Fisheries. 1 Such methods can scarcely be applied in connection with 
the propagation of the kelp weeds for purposes of potash, and for 
that reason will not be discussed here. 

The giant kelps of the Pacific grow in water of comparatively 
great depth, and in swift tideways or heav}^ surfs. It follows that 
they are plants of hardy growth. Those conditions favoring their 
growth can not be controlled with any readiness by artificial means. 

There is one particular, however, in which their propagation can 
be promoted and that is in constructing a bottom upon which the 
young plants can find anchorage. The growth of the plant depends 
on its being able to find a firm anchorage in regions where the other 
conditions are favorable. For its development a rocky bottom is 
essential. Kelp groves might be propagated, then, in certain regions 
now barren of the growth by scattering stones over the sandy bot- 
toms. Before such steps are taken, however, to provide anchorage 
for the young plants, it should be ascertained whether the condition 
of the bottom is suitable. 

HARVESTING. 

On the coast of Europe the kelp is gathered from the beach, where 
it has been washed up by the waves, or is cut by hand from its beds 
exposed at low tide. In Japan, in addition to the two methods men- 
tioned, the plants are cut from their beds by sickles, fastened to the 
ends of poles and operated from boats, or are caught in rakes and 
hooks and are pulled from their anchorage. 

Kelp gathering by manual labor is possible in the parts of Europe 
where that is practiced and in Japan, for manual labor there is 
cheap. On the Pacific coast, however, the conditions are quite 

1 Cf. Bulletin, Bureau of Fisheries, for 1904, vol. 24, 133-181. 
232 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 233 

different. Labor is in demand and is correspondingly high in price. 
To gather ke]p by the piece by hand there is economically impossible. 
The employment of mechanical harvesters, then, becomes virtually a 
necessity. 

The giant kelps of the Pacific coast grow in water of considerable 
depth. The chlorophyll-bearing parts require the sunlight in order 
that they may perform their proper functions. Accordingly, in the 
case of some of the species, notably the Nereocystis foietkeana, of the 
Puget Sound region, the Pelagophycus porra and Macrocystis pyri- 
fera, of the southern coast, they are provided with air-filled floats 
which support the main portions of the plants, the leafy fronds, 
at or near the surface of the water. The floats are attached to long, 
cordlike stems, or stipes, which extend to and are firmly attached or 
anchored upon the bottom. The thick, fleshy parts of the plant, 
making up the float, and the stems carry the largest proportion of 
valuable constituents, while the cordlike stem is comparatively lack- 
ing in them. While these plants may be growing, then, in 6 to 10 
fathoms of water, to harvest them it is only necessary to go to a 
depth of a few feet; at this depth, also, a large proportion of the 
sporangia are not destroyed. 

A harvester, cutting a few feet below the surface, would, in the 
case of the first two. sever the floating parts of the plants, comprising 
by far the larger part, from the stipe. 

The cutting of the Macrocystis pyrifera would present a somewhat 
different problem. This plant begins to branch near its anchorage 
on the bottom ; some of its branches do not reach the surface, though 
they all project in that direction, being supported by numerous small 
air sacs, or floats. To cut this plant just below the surface would 
sever the fronds reaching to or floating upon the surface. However, 
to cut deeper would sever increasing — though probably not propor- 
tionately so — amounts of the plants. The amounts being harvested, 
then, could be greatly increased by increasing the depth of the cutting. 

The cut plants doubtless would gather in masses on the surface, 
and either would be washed ashore or would be dispersed by the 
wind. Undoubtedly considerable amounts would be lost, and if the 
weeds were allowed to remain in the water for any great length of 
time, some of the saline contents would be lost through outward 
diffusion. If washed ashore, they would be found scattered over a 
considerable length of beach, where their collection would be attended 
by no little labor. Furthermore, if they were allowed to dry out 
there, their salts would be effloresced and lost. It can be seen readily 
that a much more satisfactory and economical procedure would be 
both to cut and gather the plants by mechanical devices. 

A mechanical cutter is emplo^/ed at San Diego, Cal., with revolving 
blades. To avoid the difficulties incident to the entangling of the 
long fronds of the kelp with any revolving parts it would appear 
that the adaptation of the sliding cutting bars of the mowing ma- 
chine would be preferable to revolving knives. 

The practice at San Diego is to cut the weeds 10 feet beneath the 
surface and to let them float ashore. A boat equipped as a harvester 
for gathering the cut plants could be made to follow closely the boat 
provided with the cutting apparatus. Or, preferably, one boat could 
be provided with both the cutting and the gathering apparatus. 



234 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

A cutting bar 15 or 20 feet long, with all revolving parts encased, 
could be attached to the side of the boat near its bow and made to 
project horizontally outward, in a direction at right angles to the 
long axis of the boat and at any desired depth beneath the surface of 
the water. Placed behind the cutting bar could be constructed a 
scooplike rake of converging steel rods for catching the plants as 
they are severed. The kelp could then be removed by hand ; or, better, 
by rakes attached to traveling chains or by belt conveyors. 

The length of the kelp, its toughness, and, when dry, its stiffness, 
make it highly desirable that it be cut up into short lengths. Thus 
the handling would be greatly facilitated. It is to be recommended 
that the kelp be passed, while wet and pliable, through a sort of cut- 
ting box and cut into the lengths found desirable. If the cutting box 
be a part of the harvesting boat's equipment, the kelp could be con- 
veyed directly thereto from the " collector," and from the cutting box 
into drainage bins. Thus the harvester could be operated until the 
bins were filled and could then be unloaded at its dock in any suitable 
manner. 

If the boat be unloaded at the lixiviating plant, the weeds could be 
transferred directly to the drying sheds; if at such a distance that 
they would have to be shipped thereto by rail, they could be partially 
cured and then packed into bales for shipment. If retort burners 
were to be used, it would be found desirable then, also, to compress 
the kelp into blocks or cakes for charging the retorts. The apparatus 
here proposed need not be of very great expense. Doubtless it could 
be built upon a seagoing barge, either provided with its own motive 
power or designed to be propelled by a tug or other power craft. The 
different parts would be longer, but should not be much more ex- 
pensive, than the corresponding parts of the harvester to be found 
on every modern farm. Power to operate the moving parts could be 
furnished by a small petrol motor or by the engine operating the 
propeller. 

For packing the kelp into bales the common hay baler of the farm 
could be employed. 

Thus bv the method here proposed the kelp may be harvested and 
delivered" at the lixiviating plant mechanically and with a minimum 
expenditure of manual labor. The apparatus suggested for effecting 
this may be built simply and cheaply. Its operation and maintenance 
should be inexpensive. In connection with the latter, however, it 
should be said that the corrosion by the sea water of the movable 
parts submerged would make it advisable to have them removable 
or adjustable, so that they could be lifted above the water when not 
in operation. 

CURING. 

In Japan, where seaweed is to be used in the preparation of foods, 
the curing is conducted with some care. The seaweed is laid out in 
rows on the shore or is hung on lines and poles for bleaching by the 
aun and dew. 

On the European coast the curing consists wholly in drying the 
plant so that it can be burnt. For this purpose it is merely spread 
on the shore in the sun. The kelp industry there is confined ac- 
cordingly to the summer months. In Brittany the kelp is per- 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 235 

mitted to undergo a preliminary fermentation in heaps, the object 
of which is not quite apparent. 

Such methods of curing are not applicable to the Pacific coast, 
because of the enormous loss in potassium salts resulting through 
the dislodgment of the salts effloresced during tfie drying. If the 
curing of the plants is to be undertaken by those living along the 
shore, it must be carried out on platforms with tight floors so that the 
effloresced salts may be preserved. The drying kelp, it is evident, 
must be thoroughly protected from showers. When the operation 
is conducted on a large scale, permanent drying sheds, with tight 
floors and roofs, might be employed. Balch recommends that they 
also be inclosed to prevent the finely divided crystals of potassium 
salts being blown away. He has patented (United States Patent 
825953) and recommends the use of drying platforms covered with 
glass in sloping frames and provided with steam coils beneath the 
floor to increase the rate of drying. 

With furnaces constructed so that full and proper use can be made 
of the heat evolved during the combustion, it is believed that the 
necessity for extensive drying sheds can be done away with. This 
would be a distinct advantage. Not only would a saving be effected 
in the cost of the initial installation, but if drying were carried 
to the point where efflorescence took place during the subsequent 
moving of the kelp the effloresced salts would fall off. Provision 
would have to be made in both equipment and manipulation for con- 
serving these. The salts thus accumulated, in a highly concentrated 
condition, might be used directly in fertilizers. 

If the salts are to be purified or separated from the organic matter 
of the kelp plants the latter would have to be subjected to either 
a winnowing process, which doubtless would not effect a complete 
separation of the organic and inorganic substances, or a charring 
process followed by lixiviation. The latter would effect the perfect 
separation. If this method were adopted, more would be gained, 
probably, by incinerating and lixiviating the effloresced salts together 
with the main body of the kelp, thus involving but one operation. 
However if the burning is conducted in furnaces where the combus- 
tion takes place in a current of air, or where the temperature is 
poorly regulated, the additional potassium salts might increase the 
difficulties liable to be encountered there, due to the fusion of the 
salts. This difficulty would not arise if the distillation method of 
incineration were used. 

It may be found advantageous to treat the effloresced salts sepa- 
rately, and even to adopt measures to increase the efflorescence. 
However, this is doubtful. In such a case the degree of effloresence 
could be increased, according to Balch, by checking the rate of drying 
at the point where efflorescence just begins. The conditions of the 
membranes of the plant at that stage is described as one favoring 
a "crude form of dialysis" by which the saline constituents of the 
plant are dialyzed to the surface. Too rapid drying is supposed 
to check this. About 40 per cent of the salts may be extracted in 
this way. However, it may be repeated, the extraction of all the 
salts in one operation would appear to be more economical, and it 
is believed that the adoption of measures to prevent, rather than to 
increase, efflorescence will be found advantageous. 



236 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

The prevention of efflorescence could be accomplished by charging 
the kelp into the retorts or other form of incinerators in the moist 
condition. By an arrangement constructed on or involving the 
principle of the preheater, perfect drying, even from a pretty wet 
condition, could be effected and the salts would thus be effloresced 
only after the kelp had been put into the incinerator. 

THE BURNING OF KELP. 

Heap turning. — In the early days of the kelp industry the ashes 
of sea plants — " kelp," as it was originally called — were obtained in 
the most primitive manner by burning the plants in heaps or piles. 
This was the principal industry of the poorer classes of people, croft- 
ers and cottars, living near the shore in Scotland. Generally, crude 
fireplaces were used for the burning, these consisting of shallow de- 
pressions in the sand of the shore to catch and retain the resulting 
ashes. More elaborate fireplaces were constructed at times by sur- 
rounding the depressions with low stone walls. Once started, the 
fires were kept going by the addition of the dried plants. Heap 
burning was practiced for a century on the coast of the British Isles 
and of Brittany and is in use to-day on the Scandinavian coast. 

The great advantage of the heap-burning method is its extreme 
simplicity and cheapness, entailing no expense but that represented 
by the manual labor involved. The latter is a small item, as the 
curing and burning can be and is carried on to a certain extent by 
the women and children and in isolated regions where labor has no 
ready market. It thus furnishes employment and revenue to a class 
of people in, need of both. Finally, its employment makes possible 
the conversion of a substance, the seaweed, furnished in great quanti- 
ties by nature, which would otherwise be a total loss, into a product 
which, though of very inferior quality, yet has some value in the 
market. 

The disadvantages of this method, on the other hand, are so nu- 
merous as to render its abandonment imperative. The one of main 
importance — serious enough alone to condemn the method — is that 
50 per cent of the iodine and a smaller but quite considerable pro- 
portion of the potassium salts are lost through the volatilization 
occasioned by the high temperature attained during the combustion. 
A considerable quantity of sand finds its way into the ash, either 
accidentally through careless manipulation or intentionally to in- 
crease the weight of the ash, and reacts at high temperature with the 
alkali salts to form silicates; these, subsequently, in the lixiviation 
and purification processes are liable to decompose with the forma- 
tion of troublesome compounds. Moreover, sulphates and probably 
phosphates are reduced, and these two valuable constituents are lost. 
During the extraction and purification processes sulphur is precipi- 
tated through the decomposition of sulphides and introduces com- 
plications. 

The kelp ash, resulting from this process, is in the form of a hard, 
fused mass. It is sometimes broken up by pouring cold water on it 
while hot. 

The method of curing occasioned by the shore-burning process is 
hazardous, as rain falling on the drying kelp washes out most of its 
saline constituents and thus renders the labors of the harvesters void. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 237 

On that account the industry has to be abandoned during the winter 
months. 

In southern California the last-named objection would not apply. 
However, the practice would entail the loss of practically all the 
effloresced salts which form so conspicuously on the Pacific kelps, a 
consideration which makes the method very ill advised. 

As a final objection it should be pointed out that in the process 
of burning kelp on the shore all the organic materials, of possibly 
very great value in the arts, and of demonstrated value as a ferti- 
lizer, are destroyed; and the heat resulting from the combustion, 
which at best could be used to very great advantage in the evapora- 
tion processes subsequently to be performed, is altogether wasted. 

Thus useful by-products are lost, a portion of the main products, 
potash and iodine, is driven off, and the resulting ash is of an infe- 
rior quality and is difficult to handle. The practice of burning kelp 
on the shore in heaps in the open air, then, is extremely wasteful and 
can not be too strongly discouraged or condemned. 

Distillation. — In 1862 a vastly improved method of burning kelp 
was introduced by E. C. C. Stanford, of the North British Chemical 
Co. (Ltd.), of Glasgow, which depended on the partial burning, or 
distilling, of the seaweeds in closed retorts and at a temperature not 
exceeding low redness. 

In this process the loss in iodine and potash is probably negligible 
on account of the low temperature attained. It is estimated that the 
distillation method yields more iodine by 100 per cent than the heap- 
burning process. On the completion of the distillation in absence of 
air a residue of very porous charcoal remains, instead of the hard 
lumps of fused salts, from which the soluble salts, including all the 
iodides, may be leached out with readiness. A clear solution results, 
from which the dissolved salts may be crystallized directly without 
further purifying. 

The products of the distillation consist of ammonia, acetone, and 
wood spirit, a light volatile oil, a paraffine oil, a coloring matter, tar, 
and combustible gases. (Stanford.) 

The gases may be burnt under the retorts to furnish heat for the 
distillation (Balch's patent), or under the crystallizing pans for 
evaporating the lixiviate. 

After the lixiviation has been effected a light, porous charcoal 
remains, resembling animal or bone charcoal, and possessing unique 
and valuable properties. This may be used as fuel under the retorts 
or pans in case it can not be put to better uses. Its extreme porosity, 
however, makes it a very effective deodorant and decolorizer. As 
the latter, it has been found that it would decolorize 25 per cent 
more caramel than would an equal weight of animal charcoal. Its 
high content of lime salts, however, prohibits its employment in the 
sugar industry. It makes a very effective filter ; " it has been sub- 
jected to the thickest town sewage for several months without the 
least clogging, and its efficiency after this treatment remained unim- 
paired." As a substitute for bone black it has been most highly rec- 
ommended. Its composition is indicated by the following table, the 
figures here given representing the average obtained from the analy- 
sis of several specimens. 



238 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Table XV. — Composition of kelp char. 
[Stanford's analyses of seaweed char.] 



Per cent. 
Carbon (free)—- 50 

Calcium phosphate 4 

Calcium carbonate 20 

Magnesium carbonate 6 



Per cent. 

Silica 5 

Alumina 2 

Potassium sulphate 5 

Chlorine-iodine 5 



The advantages of the Stanford method of burning kelp are self- 
apparent The increase in the yield of iodine by 100 per cent and 
in that of potash by a large proportion are sufficiently great to pake 
its employment in the place of the heap-burning method practically 
obligatory. Besides, the value of the by-products, the volatile oils, 
and the charcoal is probably considerable. However, our informa- 
tion concerning the quantities of the former by-products obtainable 
is as yet quite meager, and a market for such large quantities of 
charcoal would have to be developed. Yet its employment Avithin 
the plant as a fuel would always be possible ; the ashes resulting from 
its combustion would then be available in large amounts for those 
industrial applications for which they are adaptable. 

The solution resulting from the lixiviation of the char is clear and 
colorless. It is a practically uncontaminated solution of the chlo- 
rides and sulphates of sodium and potassium, from which it is 
possible to obtain a precipitation of high-grade salts at a single 
crystallization. Sulphides are absent. Furthermore, the sulphates 
and phosphates, the former of actual and the latter of potential 
value, are unreduced and therefore are not lost. 

The employment of the Stanford distillation method at once sug- 
gests large, central stations, to which large amounts of the partially 
dried kelp could be delivered conveniently. This would, in fact, be 
necessary unless small portable furnaces could be employed for burn- 
ing the kelp when it is thrown upon the shore. 

Mr. David M. Balch, of Coronado, Cal., has been granted a patent 
(United States patent 747,291) covering a process for distilling 
kelp in a closed retort. His experiments x are of especial interest as 
they have to do with the giant Pacific kelps. 

The plants are thoroughly sun dried, are broken up and are lightly 
compressed in the retort. Lime, or other alkaline substance, is 
sprinkled over the kelp in the proportion of about 40 grams per 
kilogram of dried seaweed. The material is then subjected to 
heating — 

the degree of heat being sufficiently high to completely decompose the organic 
portion of the seaweed, but not high enough to break up the sulphates present. 

The retorts or chambers are connected with suitable condensing appliances 
and to receivers, and all condensible volatile products arising from this modi- 
fied form of dry distillation, together with the uncondensible gases generated. 
are collected apart. The heating of the retorts or chambers is maintained until 
no further volatile products are evolved. 

This method of distillation, it will be observed, has many points 
in common with the Stanford method. 

The char is lixiviated and a light, porous charcoal remains behind. 
From a single crystallization of the lixiviate a beautiful product of 
potassium chloride is obtained directly, commercially pure. 

iJour. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1, 777 (1909). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 239 

The alkaline substances added to the kelp before distillation, it is 
claimed — - 

favor the complete separation of the soluble from the insoluble mineral salts 
of the particular kelp under treatment and is of decided advantage in break- 
ing up and converting into ammonia certain difficultly decomposable nitrogenous 
constituents. 

Portable furnaces, of sheet iron, could be constructed on the 
Stanford or Balch plan, with closed retort. The latter, if mounted 
on a swivel, could be dumped without coaling. A petroleum burner 
could be used for starting, or assisting in, the distillation, though 
the main fuel employed would be the combustible gases evolved dur- 
ing the distillation and led back under the retort for combustion. 
The construction of the furnace could be light and compact ; it could 
be mounted on a truck for draft by horse. However, its expense 
probably would be too great for the ordinary individual living along 
shore. It might be found feasible for the operation of lixiviating 
plants to lease portable burners in accordance with some cooperative 
scheme. 

Retort furnaces for the distillation of seaweed could probably be 
built and operated most advantageously after the manner of coke 
ovens. Thus the retorts could be built in series with the regenerative 
and condensation features of the modern coke ovens. With a proper 
construction only partially dried kelp would be charged and the 
operation would then be practically a continuous one. 

The construction of a furnace is suggested in which kelp could be 
charred by a strictly continuous process. The furnace should be of 
the closed muffle tj^pe, with sloping muffle ; the top part of the nature 
of a preheater and provided with a charging bell, to prevent the 
escape of gases, and the bottom part a regenerative cooler, provided 
with a tightly fitting, sliding door, to permit the removal of the char. 
The gases, if led from the top part of the furnace, could be made to 
pass through the charge in the cooler portion of the furnace; or they 
could be led out at any desirable point. After passing through a 
condenser for the recovery of the condensible constituents, they could 
be burnt within the furnace, under the muffle. Any such furnace, 
however, would have to be operated with sufficient care to prevent 
the temperature within the muffle from reaching a point at which the 
char would begin to cake. Caking would be caused by the fusion of 
the potassium salts within the char. The movement of the charge 
through the furnace would tend to obviate that danger. 

The proper construction of the preheater makes possible the use 
of kelp only partially dried ; thus would the drying and charring, or 
distilling, be carried out in stages of one operation, and the effloresced 
salts would be liberated within the furnace. 

De Roussen has patented * a method of distilling seaweed, the 
salient points of which are given as follows : 

The seaweed is bruised and is treated with some astringent to 
render the nitrogenous parts insoluble. It is then sprinkled with a 
weak solution of soda lye (5°-10° B.) and is allowed to drain. The 
plants are now introduced into the coolest part of a furnace, which 
is heated externally, and, by means of some suitable mechanical de- 
vice, are gradually brought forward to the hottest part, where they 

i English patent 4214 (1882?). 



240 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

lose their " volatilisable and pyrogenous products." The carboniza- 
tion is complete when smoke ceases to escape from the chimney. The 
char is cooled, sifted, the lumps broken up, and is then lixiviated. 
The charcoal is dried and is used for fuel. " The gaseous products 
escaping from the retort are condensed and separated in the usual 
way." 

Lixiviation without burning. — For a century the Japanese have 
prepared large quantities of numerous products from seaweed which 
have found a wide use as foods and constituents of foods, and in the 
arts and sciences. They have devoted their attention to the organic 
rather than to the inorganic constituents of the sea plants, though 
it is stated that they are producing iodine from seaweed of an annual 
value of $130,000. 

The constituents of kelp which possess a food value probably par- 
take of the nature of complex carbohydrates. For a discussion of 
this important industry of Japan, see the interesting Separate from 
the Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries for 1904, volume 24, pages 
133-181, by Dr. Hugh M. Smith, and Appendices K and K of this 
report. 

Stanford investigated the kelps of the British Isles and found that 
they contained substances other than the inorganic constituents, for 
which alone the kelp up to that time had been valued, of such a wide 
range of applicability that he compared the destructive distillation 
of kelp for the recovery of iodine to the similar destruction of 
mahogany or of other precious woods for the preparation of lye or 
distillation products. While the distillation of wood can be carried 
on with profit, it is manifestly absurd to subject it to destructive 
distillation if it can be marketed for more than its distillation prod- 
ucts will bring. 

Stanford devised a method of treating kelp whereby not only all 
of the valuable inorganic constituents can be removed, but also the 
organic parts can be recovered and subsequently be applied to any 
use for which they are adapted. This method depends on the lixivia- 
tion of the dead plants. 

While the living plant is able to take into its tissues certain in- 
organic substances through selective absorption, the dead plant, it 
has been shown, is unable to retain them. The rate at which these 
are removed by fresh water and the order in which the various inor- 
ganic salts are given off has been studied by Stanford. 1 He recom- 
mends simple maceration in cold water, "the salts being almost 
entirely removed even by two macerations." The resulting solution 
contains about one-third of the weight of the dried plant, represent- 
ing the soluble inorganic salts and certain organic substances of the 
nature of sugar, mannite, etc. 

The separation of the saccharine from the saline substances pre- 
sents some difficulties which will not be overcome until the economic 
value of the sugars has been investigated. In the meantime, the 
sugars are sacrificed by incinerating. The salts are then separated 
in a satisfactory condition by lixiviation. 

iChem. News, 47, 254-267 (1883). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



241 



The following table (Table XVI) represents the composition of 
the salts obtained from two varieties of sea plants by maceration in 
water : 

Table XVI. — Composition of saline mutter dissolved from two varieties of kelp 

by lixiviation. 



Constituent. 



Calcium sulphate... 
Potassium sulphate 
Potassium chloride. 

Sodium chloride 

Magnesium chloride 
Sodium carbonate.. 
Sodium iodide 

Total 



1. Lami- 

naria ste- 
nophylla. 



Per cent. 
1.69 
11.29 
19.90 
60.96 
4.35 
.53 
1.26 



99. 98 



2. Fucus 
vesiculosus. 



Per cent. 
4.33 
23.62 
13.71 
58.20 



99.98 



In the following tables the composition of the salts are shown as 
obtained in six successive macerations in cold water. 

In each case solutions resulting from the macerations were evap- 
orated to dryness, the solid residue was carbonized, washed, again 
ignited, and again washed. This treatment insured the complete 
separation of the saline constituents from the organic. 

Table XVII. — Amounts of salts obtained by successive lixiviations of Lami- 
naria stenophylla, air dried. 

[Moisture, 14.S per cent; sample of 4 ounces=l,750 grains; 6 macerations. ] 



Maceration. 



Weight 

residuum 

(gTains). 



Per cent. 



Grains. 



Per cent. 



First maceration. . 
Second maceration 
Third maceration. . 
Fourth maceration 
Fifth maceration. . 
Sixth maceration.. 



2SS.0 
211.0 
40.0 
37.2 
21.1 
18.6 



10. 45 
12. 05 
2.28 
2.12 
1.20 
1.06 



499 
77.2 

39.7 



28.5 
4.4 
2.26 



615.9 



35. 16 



Table XVIII shows the proportions of the organic and inorganic 
constituents of the lixiviate. 

Table XVIII. — Composition of matter dissolved by successive lixiviations. 



Maceration. 


Volatile 
matter. 


Salts. 


Fixed 
carbon. 


Ash. 


Total. 




Per cent. 
23.4 
28.0 
29.3 
40.0 
54.5 
69.1 


Per cent. 
67.1 
60.1 
55.5 
40.0 
31.8 
22.5 


Per cent. 
3.91 
4.97 
4.1 
4.56 
2.23 
.96 


Per cent. 
5.59 
6.93 
11.1 
15.44 
11.4 
7.44 


Per cent. 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 
100.0 















20S27°— S. Doc. 190, 62-S 



242 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OE THE UNITED STATES. 



In Table XIX is given the composition of the salts obtained in the 
six successive" lixiviations of the raw plant : 



Table XIX. — 


Composition of 


salts dissolved in the successive lixiviations. 


Maceration. 


Calcium 
sulphate. 


Potas- 
sium 
sulphate. 


Potas- 
sium 
chloride. 


Sodium 
chloride. 


Sodium 
iodide. 


Sodium 
carbon- 
ate. 


Magne- 
sium 
chloride. 


Total. 


First maceration 

Second maceration . . . 

Third maceration 

Fourth maceration. . . 

Fifth maceration 

Sixth maceration 


Per cent. 
2.91 
1.02 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 


Per cent. 

7.53 

10.08 

19.48 

20.80 

Trace. 

Trace. 


Per cent. 
34.05 
30.95 
24.81 
23.78 

Trace. 

Trace. 


Per cent. 
45.55 
53.00 
53.57 
51.04 

Trace. 

Trace. 


Per cent. 
1.95 
1.58 
2.00 
1.25 

Trace. 

Trace. 


Per cent. 

Nil. 

Nil. 
Trace. 

3.30 
Trace. 
Trace. 


Per cent. 
8.55 
3.40 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 

Trace. 


Per cent. 
100. 54 
100. 03 
99.86 
100. 17 







Table XX. — Values from Table XVIII calculated to per cent of original weight 
of material lixiviated. Laminaria stenophylla {air dried). 



Maceration. 



Total 
soluble. 



Vola- 
tile. 



Salts- 



Car- 
bon. 



Ash. 



First maceration... 
Second maceration 
Third maceration. . 
Fourth maceration 
Fifth maceration.. 
Sixth maceration . . 

Total 



Per ct. 
16.45 
12.05 
2.28 
2.12 
1.20 
1.06 



Per ct, 
3.85 
3.35 



.656 
.73 



Per ct. 

11.04 

7.26 

1.26 

.85 

.38 

.24 



Per ct. 
0.64 
.60 
.09 
.09 
.027 
.01 



Per ct. 
0.92 
.81 
.25 
.32 
.137 
.078 



35. 16 



21. 03 



1.46 



2.54 



Table XXI. — Composition of salts, calculated on basis of original weight. 



Maceration. 



Calcium 
sulphate. 



Potas- 
sium 
sulphate. 



Potas- 
sium 
chloride. 



Sodium 
chloride. 



Sodium 
iodide. 



Sodium 
carbon- 
ate. 



sium 
chloride. 



First maceration... 
Second maceration 
Third maceration. . 
Fourth maceration 
Fifth maceration . . 
Sixth maceration. . 



Per cent. 
0.321 
.07 

Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 
Nil. 



Per cent. 

0.83 

.73 

.25 

.18 

Trace. 

Trace. 



Per cent. 

3.76 

2.25 

.31 

.20 

Trace. 

Trace. 



Per cent. 

4.97 

3.85 

.68 

.43 

Trace. 

Trace. 



Per cent. 

0.22 

.11 

.03 

.01 

Trace. 

Trace. 



Per cent. 

Nil. 

Nil. 
Trace. 

0.03 
Trace. 
Trace. 



Per cent. 
0.94 
.25 
Trace. 
Trace. 
Trace. 
Trace. 



Table XXII. — Proportions and composition of the products of lixiviation. 
minaria stenophylla {air dried). 

UNDISSOLVED MATTER. 
[Two ounces equal 50 per cent original weight.] 



La- 



Constituent. 


Composi- 
tion. 


Original 
weight. 




Per cent. 
74.2 
25.8 


Per cent. 
37.1 




12.9 






Total 


100.0 


50 









CHARCOAL. 






Salts 


18.0 
50.7 
31.3 


2 32 




6 55 




4.03 








Total 


100.0 


12 90 







FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



243 



Table XXII. — Proportions and composition of the products of lixiviation. La- 
minaria stenophylla (air dried) — Continued. 

SALTS. 
[Two ounces equal 50 per cent original weight.] 



Constituent. 


Composi- 
tion. 


Original 
weight. 




Per cent. 

35.27 
6.72 
5.00 

49.97 
2.63 
Nil. 


Per cent. 

0.S2 




.16 




.12 




.17 




.06 




Nil. 






Total 


99.49 


2.32 







Table XXIII. — Amounts of salts obtained by successive lixiviations of Fucus 

vesiculosus — dried. 



[Moisture, 2.11 per cent: sample o, 




lis 1,750 grains; 6 macerations.] 




Macera 


Weight 
residue. 


Per cent. 




Grains. 

174.5 

43.0 

11.2 

6.15 

Trace. 

Trace. 


9.45 




2.45 








.99 


















Total 


234. 85 


12.89 







Table XXIV. — Composition of mailer dissolved by successive lixiviations. 



Maceral 




Salts. 


Fixed 
carbon. 


Ash. 




Per cent. 
37. 7S 

(38. 4 
47. 48 


Per cent. 
49.03 
27. 62 
29. 22 
25! 71 


Per cent. 
8.09 
1.17 
3.78 

.74 


Per cent. 
5.10 




2.81 




19.52 




10.09 







Table XXV. — Composition of salts dissolved in the successive lixiv'ations. 



Maceration. 


Potas- 
sium 
sulphate. 


Sodium 
sulphate. 


Sodium 
chloride. 


Sodium 
iodide. 


Sodium 
carbon- 
ate. 




Per cent. 

27.25 

48.19 

Trace. 

Trace. 


4.04 

.57 

Trace. 

Trace. 


Per cent. 
61.50 
37.62 
Trace- 
Trace. 


Per cent. 

0.03 

.02 

Trace. 

Trace. 


Per cent. 
7.42 




13.36 




Trace. 




Trace. 







Table XXVI. — Values from Table XXIV calculated to per cent of original 
weight of material lixiviated. Fucus vesiculosus (dried). 



Maceration. 


Per cent. 


Volatile. 


Salts. 


Carbon. 


Ash. 




Per cent. 
9.45 
2.45 

.64 
.35 


Per cent. 

3.58 

1.68 

.30 

.22 


Per cent. 

4.63 

.67 

.19 

.09 


Per cent. 

0.76 

.03 

.02 

.003 


Percent. 
0.48 




.07 




.13 




.04 






Total 


12. S9 


5.79 


5.58 


.82 


.71 




- 



244 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE "UNITED STATES. 



Table XXVII. — Composition of salts calculated on basis of original tceight. 



Maceration. 


Potas- 
sium 
sulphate. 


Sodium 
sulphate. 


Sodium 
chloride. 


Sodium 
iodide. 


Sodium 
carbon- 
ate. 




Per cent. 

1.26 

.34 

Trace. 

Trace. 


Per cent. 

0.19 

.004 

Trace. 

Trace. 


Per cent. 

2.84 

.23 

Trace. 

Trace. 


Per cent. 
0.001 

.0001 
Trace. 
Trace. 


Per cent. 
0.34 




.09 




Trace. 




Trace. 







Table XXVIII. — Proportions and composition of the products of lixiviation. 

UNDISSOLVED MATTER. 
[Weight, 3 ounces; 175 grains equals 85 per cent.j 



Constituent. 



Composi- 
tion. 



Original 
weight. 



Volatile matter 

Charcoal 

Total 

CHARCOAL 

Salts 

Fixed carbon 

Ash 

Total 

SALTS. 

Potassium sulphate 

Sodium sulphate 

Calcium sulphate 

Magnesium sulphate 

Magnesium chloride 

Sodium carbonate 

Sodium iodide 

Total 



Per cent. 
65.65 
34.35 



Per cent. 
55.81 
29.19 



100. 00 



85.00 




5.24 
17.53 
6.42 



29.41 


1.54 


47.58 


2.50 


9.34 


.48 


11.76 


.62 


1.30 


.068 


.45 


.024 


.22 


.012 



5.24 



These tables afford a good idea of what may be expected of a 
direct lixiviation process. A discussion of the mechanical details 
involved in such an operation need not be entered into here, though 
the actual application of the process doubtless would not pre- 
sent very serious difficulties. Suffice it to say that the lixiviation 
could be effected by the method of countercurrents, from which a 
solution saturated with respect to the inorganic constituents would 
result. An additional expense involved would be evaporation of this 
lixiviate to dryness, followed by an ignition, to effect the charring 
of the organic constituents dissolved from the plants with the salts. 

The success of the direct lixiviation method would depend on the 
successful utilization of the organic matter remaining, the conserva- 
tion of which is the purpose of the method. 

Stanford has shown that many varieties of kelp contain large 
quantities of a weak organic acid which, from its source, he has 
named " alginic " acid. This material in its free state — i. e., uncom- 
bined with a base — is insoluble in water and in dilute acids. It 
unites readily with numerous bases to form with some of them solu- 
ble salts and with others insoluble salts of striking characteristics. 
The soluble salts are gums of great viscosity ; the sodium alginate in 
2 per cent solution excels in viscosity gum arabic in 50 per cent 
solution. A 5 per cent solution is so viscous that it can scarcely be 
poured. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



245 



The treatment of the kelp for the extraction of its valuable con- 
stituents consists, then, in a maceration with water, repeated once 
or twice, to remove the soluble salts — potassium and sodium chlo- 
rides, sulphates, and iodides. The insoluble residue contains the 
algin, cellulose, and the insoluble inorganic constituents. This is 
treated for 24 hours with about one-tenth of its weight of sodium 
carbonate in solution. The mixture is then heated and filtered. The 
algin, or alginic acid, reacts with the sodium carbonate to form the 
soluble sodium alginate and leaves a residue of cellulose or cellulose- 
like material. The solution is now acidified with sulphuric acid for 
the precipitation of the algin. This is filtered out as a light-brown 
precipitate. The filtrate, containing sodium sulphate, is evaporated 
and from it Glauber's salt is crj'stallized. 

An alternative method of procedure is to omit the preliminary 
maceration for the removal of the potash. This, then, remains in 
solution, together with the iodine, and is to be found in the mother 
liquors from the sodium-sulphate precipitation. The former opera- 
tion is represented schematically below. 

The following comparison of the three processes — the heap- 
burning, the distillation, and the lixiviation — is taken from the 
article by Watson Smith. 1 

Heap turning. 
[Per cent utilized — 18.] 

Ash, 18 tons {j^Se ^TOtts. } Residuals > waste (valueless). 

Distillation. 
[Per cent utilized, 36.] 

Charcoal, 36 tons {fodme 600 D poun6^.} Residuals: Cnarcoal ( 21 tons), tar, and ammonia. 

Lixiviation. 
[Per cent utilized, 70.] 

Water extract, 33 tons {io d in e 15 6 oo n pounds.} Residucs: Algin ( 20 tons) - cellulose ( 15 tons), dextrin, etc. 
Tlie lixiviation process schematically represented. 



Kelp and -water 



Algin-cellulose 



Solutions 



+ 
-Na 2 C0 3 - 



-On evaporation — 



Cellulose 



Sodium alginate 
solution 



Salts of potassium 
and sodium 



-Sulphuric acid- 



Algin 



Sodium sulphate 
solution 



On evaporation 



Mother liquor 



+ 
Mn0 2 +H 2 S04 



Iodine 



Glauber's salt 



!J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 4, 518 (1885). 



246 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

The cellulose remaining after the removal of the algin is recom- 
mended for use in the manufacture of paper. It is practically fiber- 
less. When used in combination with other materials which furnish 
the requisite amount of fiber it can be made into paper of a grade 
which is said to be excellent. 

Krefting, of Christiana, Norway, has introduced numerous modi- 
fications into the methods and apparatus for extracting the organic 
constituents of kelp and for separating the organic and the inorganic 
ones. 

By treating the seaweed in the beginning with dilute sulphuric 
acid (1 to 6 per cent), and following this with the treatment with 
alkali or alkali carbonate, a sodium alginate or "tailgate" is ob- 
tained which, on acidification, yields a product free from nitrogen 
(English patent 11,538, May 27,_ 1896) . 

An interesting product is obtained (English patent 8,042, April 17, 
1899) when the alkaline alginates or "tangates" are intimately mixed 
with the plant fibers, and the resulting mass is dried on moving belts. 
The addition of various substances, such as dyestuffs, mineral mat- 
ter, drying oils, soaps, glycerin, glucose, etc., give the product vari- 
ous desirable properties. 

For other modifications bv Krefting, see English patents 12,275, 
12,277, 12,416, 13,151, and 13,289 of the year 1898. 

A process for preserving kelp and extracting therefrom the organic 
jellies has been patented by Pitt (English patent 20,356, 1898). The 
preservative employed is "heavy gas oils," by means of which ac- 
cumulations of kelp are preserved for future use, thus rendering the 
manufacturer independent of a daily supply. 

For extraction of the gelatinous matter, the kelp is macerated in 
water and acidified with sulphuric acid. It is then steamed at a 
pressure of two to four atmospheres and is filtered, the matter to be 
extracted from the cellulose being thus separated. Liquors result- 
ing contain the saline matter and are treated for iodine. The gela- 
tinous matter thus obtained is used for waterproofing fabrics, paper, 
leather, wood, and like materials. 

PREPARATION OP POTASSIUM SALTS AND IODINE. 

In the early daj^s of the kelp industry, and up to the time of its 
decline, the ash of the seaweed, the original kelp, was prepared, by 
methods which have been described, on the shores, and was then 
shipped to the kelp-lixiviating plants. The latter were situated at 
and near Glasgow, which has always been the center of the kelp 
industry. 

The method of lixiviation of the ash, as it was practiced during 
the height of the industry, has been described by Stanford. 1 The 
kelp ash was broken up into pieces the size of road metal and was lixi- 
viated in vats, coupled together and heated by steam. The solution 
resulting was run off when it had reached a density of 40 r to 45° 
Twaddell. This was evaporated in ordinary open evaporating pans, 
about 9 feet in diameter. The salts, as they deposited, were raked out. 

The crystallization took place in stages, or by fractions. At about 
62° Twaddell a rough salt was deposited, consisting of 50 to 60 per 

1 Chem. News, 35, 172, 1877. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 247 

cent potassium sulphate, combined with sodium sulphate and chlo- 
ride. The mother liquor from this crop of crystals was run into cast- 
iron cooling pans, where, during a period of about three days, potas- 
sium chloride crystallized out. This alternate evaporation and chill- 
ing was repeated about three times, when ashes of good quality were 
employed. The successive crops of potassium chloride would range 
between 80 and 95 per cent KC1. The final mother liquor, 85° to 95° 
Twaddell, was mixed with about one-seventh of its volume of sul- 
phuric acid of 145° Twaddell and the resulting mixture was allowed 
to settle. Sulphides and other sulphur compounds were decomposed 
with the precipitation of sulphur. The liquid was then distilled with 
manganese dioxide in iron stills. These were provided with lead 
covers carrying two arms, each of which was connected with a series 
of stoneware udells. These were for the condensation of the iodine, 
which separated in them in hard masses. After the iodine had ceased 
to come off, more manganese dioxide was added and the distillation 
was continued to remove the bromine then liberated. This was con- 
densed in a suitable apparatus of lead or earthenware, which replaced 
the udells. 

The products obtained, then, in this process were iodine, bromine ; 
" muriate," containing 80 to 98 per cent KC1 ; " soft sulphate," contain- 
ing 50 to 65 per cent K 2 S0 4 ; "kelp salt," containing sodium chloride 
and 5 to 10 per cent alkali (free?) ; "kelp waste," containing mostly 
calcium carbonate and silica (and doubtless the insoluble calcium 
phosphate), formerly used in the glass industry, but of doubtful 
value ; and " sulphur waste," containing, when dry, about 70 per cent 
sulphur. Each solid, upon its removal from the mother liquor, had to 
be drained thoroughly or else washed to remove the liquor, rich in 
iodine, which it contained. This tended further to complicate the 
process. 

The process of lixiviation and crystallization as here described is 
the one which was in general use during the height of the iodine- 
from-kelp industry. Because of the decline in the industry, the 
method has not undergone any great modifications. 

Lauray 1 has introduced the method of precipitating most of the 
potassium salts from the mother liquor by saturating the latter with 
hydrochloric acid. He then adds nitrous and hyponitrous acids, 
which liberate the iodine but not the bromine. 

Stephanelli and Doveri liberate the iodine by evaporating the 
mother liquor to dryness and by heating the resulting solid mass 
with manganese dioxide, thus obviating the use of sulphuric acid. 

Chlorine, in the form of a gas, or in combination as a hypochlorite 
(bleaching powder), is also employed for the liberation of the iodine. 
Its use must be attended with care, however, to avoid the oxidation 
of the iodine to forms in which it again becomes soluble. Where 
chlorine and the lower oxides of nitrogen are employed the crude 
iodine thus precipitated may be filtered from the solution, if the 
latter is sufficiently concentrated, instead of distilled. 

The separation of potassium salts from the lixiviate obtained 
from the char after the distillation, rather than the burning, of the 
kelp, is a much simpler process than that described. This has been 
demonstrated amply by the work of Stanford and of Balch. The lix- 

iMoniteur Sci., 1868, 1042. 



248 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 

iviate obtained from this material is essentially a solution of the 
chlorides and sulphates of sodium and potassium, with potassium 
chloride in the preponderating amount. The experiments performed 
in the Bureau of Soils, while not exhaustive, indicate that this lix- 
iviate is practically free from calcium and magnesium salts. 

On evaporation of the lixiviate, the solids which would separate 
will be determined by the relative amounts of the various salts 
present. If it be assumed, which is usually the case, that the potas- 
sium chloride is in excess of any or all the other salts, potassium 
chloride will at first separate alone as a pure salt. How long this 
process will continue is determined by the ratios and amounts of the 
other salts present. Sodium sulphate, glaserite (a double sulphate of 
sodium and potassium) , sodium chloride, or still other salts may be 
mixed with the potassium chloride, and it is impracticable to predict 
what will happen or what procedure would be best, without a definite 
knowledge of the analytical data for the particular lixiviate. This 
point requires further laboratory investigation. 

Practicable methods for the approximately quantitative separa- 
tion of sodium and potassium by fractional crystallization have not 
been worked out satisfactorily. Preliminary experiments, as the 
beginning of a research on that problem, have been performed in this 
laboratory, and it is expected that the investigation will be carried 
to completion. 

The separation of potassium salts following the lixiviation of 
kelp char is a simpler process than that following the lixiviation 
from kelp ashes — the solution is freer from impurities and the steps 
in the operations are fewer and simpler. 

The liberation of iodine from the iodides accumulating in the 
mother liquor can be accomplished by one of several well-known 
methods. 

Stevens (English patent 15,809, Aug. 22, 1895) has introduced 
the modification in the treatment of the lixiviate from kelp of sepa- 
rating the sodium and potassium salts from the first lixiviate in the 
usual way, and the iodine and bromine from the resultant mother 
liquor by means of manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid, and from 
the second and subsequent lixiviations by purifying and crystalliz- 
ing to obtain potassium sulphate and then electrolyzing the mother 
liquor, containing chlorides, bromides, and iodides, to form chlorates, 
bromates, and iodates. From this solution chlorates are obtained 
by crystallization, and the process is repeated, or is carried on in 
accordance with other schemes, until a solution finally results so 
concentrated in bromates and iodates that it can be treated suc- 
cessfully for the recovery of bromine and iodine. 

Keduction to bromides and iodides is effected by sulphurous acid. 

DIRECT USE AS A FERTILIZER. 

One other alternative method of utilizing marine algae as a source 
of potash for agricultural purposes lies in their use directly as a 
fertilizer. In the British Isles they have been so used for centuries. 

The dry plants are quite brittle and may be ground to an extremely 
fine powder with facility. In this form they may be applied to the 
soil in the same way as are other fertilizers. While they would be 
considered mainly as a potash fertilizer, and would be mixed with 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 



249 



other fertilizer ingredients as a carrier of potash, if used alone they 
would represent in a way a complete fertilizer, as they carry, in 
addition to their very high potash content, both nitrogen and phos- 
phates. In addition to these three there are also certain amounts of 
carbonate of lime and chloride of sodium, the first generally and the 
second sometimes regarded as beneficial when added to the soil. 
There is, furthermore, the large amount of organic matter, repre- 
senting about 50 per cent of the entire weight, of a sort that under- 
goes very ready decomposition within the soil. This organic matter 
swells up enormously when wetted, a quality of advantage in retain- 
ing the moisture of the soil within the immediate neighborhood of 
the root zone of the growing plant. Following is given a comparison 
of the dried kelp with cottonseed meal and tobacco stems, both of 
which are considered of high value as fertilizers : 



Substances compared. 


Moisture. 


N 


PsOs 


KjO 






7.5 
2.3 
L5 


2.5 
0.6 
5.0 


1.5 

6.4 

23.4 


Tobacco stems 


10.6 
Trace. 


Kelp 





The phosphoric acid content of the kelp given here is somewhat 
doubtful, as but few analyses of the Pacific kelps have included so 
far the determination of that ingredient. The value of 5 per cent 
is taken from published analyses of certain Japanese algae. It is 
regarded as a very conservative estimate for the Pacific kelps. 

In Table XXIX is given a comparison between the average analyses 
for certain varieties of seaweeds, eelgrass, Fucus sassates, from New 
Haven Harbor, containing 0.94 per cent of potash ; seaweed, or kelp, 
Laminaria saccharina, " kelpweed " from Maine, containing 2.46 per 
cent of potash ; and " kelp-fertilizer," Fucus nodosus, or " rockweed," 
containing 2.18 per cent potash — and stable manure. 



Table XXIX. — The manurial value of kelp, compared with stable manure. 

[From Johnson, "Seaweed as fertilizer," Am. Chemist. 2, 297 (1S71-72).] 



Ingredient. 




Parts in 
kelp. 



Organic matter 

N 

P2O5 

H i SO J 

NaCl 

Soda 

Potash 

Lime 

Magnesia 



5. 0- 6. 5 

2. 0- 3. 

L0- 2. 5 

23. 0-25. 

37. 0-54. 

23. 0-3 L 

3.0-4 

2. 0- 2. 5 

L0- 6. 



ALGINIC ACID AND DERIVATIVES. 



Alginic acid, or " algin," is an organic acid which occurs in large 
quantities in certain seaweeds. When the plant is macerated with 
a dilute solution of sodium carbonate, or of other alkaline substances, 
the alginic acid, by uniting with the base to form a soluble salt, 
goes into solution. Upon acidifying the solution, the free acid 



250 . FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

is liberated, and being insoluble in water, it precipitates as a light- 
brown, gelatinous mass. On resolution and reprecipitation it is 
much whitened and may become quite white if the process is repeated 
a sufficient number of times. When first precipitated it contains 
about 98 per cent water. In this form it may be filtered and washed, 
though the large amount of water which it absorbs carries with it 
parts of the substances dissolved in it. Stanford regarded it as a 
definite compound and on the basis of his analysis assigned the 
empirical formula, C 76 H 80 N 2 O 22 . In structure it is regarded as a 
diamid. 

Upon drying algin assumes a hard, hornlike form and has a spe- 
cific gravity of 1.534. It can be turned on a lathe, or, if pressed into 
molds while wet, on drying it retains the form thus imparted. Ar- 
ticles constructed of it may be polished, or, if allowed to dry in 
sheets, the product has properties which make it a substitute for 
rubber or parchment for certain purposes. 

Derivatives. — With ammonia, the alkali metals, and magnesium, 
alginic acid unites to form soluble compounds. Sodium alginate — 
a typical, soluble alginate — is a gum which has 14 times the vis- 
cosity of starch and 37 times that of gum arabic. In solutions it 
is precipitated by the ions of those metals with which it forms 
insoluble salts, and by alcohol, acetone, and collodion, but not by 
ether, and by mineral acids. It is not precipitated by alkalies, starch, 
glycerol, or cane sugar. It is distinguished from albumen, which 
it most nearly resembles, by not being coagulated by heat, and from 
gelose by not gelatinizing on cooling, by containing nitrogen, 1 by 
dissolving in weak alkaline solution, and by being insoluble in 
boiling water. From gelatin it is distinguished by giving no reac- 
tion with tannin; from starch, by giving no color reaction with 
iodine; from dextrin, gum arabic, tragacanth, and pectin, by its 
insolubility in dilute mineral acids and in dilute alcohol. 

The proposed commercial applications of alginates are numerous. 
For sizing fabrics it is especially recommended. 

As a finish, algin has the advantage over starch that it fills the cloth better, 
is tougher, and more elastic, that it is transparent when dry and that it is not 
acted on by acids. It imparts to the goods a thick, clothy, elastic feeling, 
without the stiffness imparted by starch. It has the advantage possessed by 
no other gum of becoming insoluble in presence of a dilute acid, which decom- 
poses starch or dextrin. 

Being exceedingly viscous, its solutions have a great covering 
power. 

Sodium alginate is broken down by mineral acids with the pre- 
cipitation of the insoluble alginic acid. Fabrics, then, which have 
been dressed with the sodium alginate, when treated with solutions 
of mineral acids have the algin formed on them in situ. Or. in- 
stead of a solution of an acid, one of a compound giving an ion 
which will form an insoluble compound can be used. Thus, lime- 
water will produce a precipitate of insoluble calcium alginate within 
the fibers of the fabric. 

As a mordant. — Sodium alginate has been found of service as a 
vegetable mordant, or for precipitating such mordants as those con- 
taining iron and aluminum upon cotton fiber. 

°.f. Krefting, Eng. patent 11538, 189S. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 251 

As a food. — But little is known of the edibility of the free acid 
or of its compounds, though it has been suggested as an article of 
diet, if not for man, in its cruder forms, at least for beast. Its nitro- 
gen content is about equal to that of Dutch cheese; its composition 
is: Carbon, 44.39 per cent; hydrogen, 5.47 per cent; oxygen, 46.57 
per cent ; nitrogen, 3.77 per cent. If calculated to protein, the nitro- 
gen would represent about 23 per cent protein. 

For thickening soups and puddings, as a substitute for gum arabic in the 
manufacture of jujubes and lozenges, in making jellies, it is said that it would 
be very serviceable. 

In pharmacy. — As an emulsifier of oils and as an excipient for 
pills its use has been suggested in pharmacy. 

For softening water. — Calcium alginate is insoluble in water and 
may be precipitated from a solution of the sodium salt. Sodium 
alginate, then, has been found to be an effective " softener " for boiler 
waters by precipitating therefrom the lime. The resulting precipitate 
is finely divided and may be " blown off " easily. 

As a binding material. — Algin in its soluble form should find a 
wide use as an agglutinizer in the briquetting of the various pulver- 
ulent substances in use in the industries, such as silica, lime, magnesia, 
chalk, zinc oxide, lead oxide, alumina, graphite, carbon, charcoal, etc. 
When mixed with charcoal a paste results which is spoken of as an 
excellent black, odorless, and nonconducting coating for boilers and 
other metal work. 

With shellac. — The alkaline alginates in water solution have the 
power of dissolving shellacs. Upon evaporation, a tough, tenacious 
residue is obtained, soluble in water. On being treated with an acid, 
the film is rendered insoluble in water, but its other properties, highly 
desirable in a varnish, remain unimpaired. This resembles gutta- 
percha, and is said to be a good electrical insulator. 

Compounds. — Alginic acid forms, with the metallic ions, three series 
of compounds: (1) With ammonia, the alkali metals, and magnesium, 
soluble salts; (2) with most of the other metals, insoluble salts; most 
of these react with ammonia to form (3) a series of very soluble com- 
pounds, probably double ammonium salts. Series 3 possesses the re- 
markable property of becoming insoluble upon evaporation to dry- 
ness. From their solutions there separates out, thus, insoluble, water- 
proof varnishes. In the list which follows of the various alginates 
and their properties, the characteristics of the final product of class 
(3) are given. 

(1) Water soluble: 

Ammonium alginate. 
Sodium alginate. 
Potassium alginate. 
Magnesium alginate. 

(2) Water insoluble: 

Barium alginate, dense, white. 

Strontium alginate, white. 

Calcium alginate, white, hardening into solid white blocks which take 
a good polish; forms transparent sheets; specific gravity, 1.6, ap- 
proaching that of ivory, 1.S2. 

Lead alginate, transparent, colorless. 

Silver alginate, colorless, gelatinous ; imperfectly insoluble. Easily soluble 
in ammonia ; very sensitive to light. 

Mercury aginate (only mercurous), dense, white, gelatinous; blackened 
by ammonia. 



252 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 



(2) Water insoluble — Continued. 

Copper alginate, green, gelatinous. 

Cadmium alginate, colorless, gelatinous. 

Bismuth alginate, dense, white. 

Iron (ferric) alginate, reddish, brown. No reaction with ferrous, but 
quantitative precipitation of ferric. 

Cobalt alginate, light red, gelatinous. 

Nickel alginate, light green. 

Manganese alginate, colorless, gelatinous. 

Zinc alginate, colorless, gelatinous. 

Chromium alginate, blue, gelatinous. 

Aluminium alginate, white, gelatinous; soluble in caustic soda, evaporat- 
ing to a film. 

Arsenic alginate, colorless, gelatinous. 

Antimony alginate, dense, white. 

Stannic alginate, colorless, gelatinous. 

Stannous alginate, colorless, gelatinous. 

Uranium alginate, yellowish brown, gelatinous. 

Platinum alginate, brown, gelatinous. 

(3) Soluble in ammonia, giving, on evaporation, water-insoluble films: 

Silver alginate, dark, reddish-brown film, which on exposure to light be- 
comes a brilliant silver mirror ; of possible use in photography. 

Copper alginate, deep blue solution, bright-green film. Suggested use: 
Varnish for waterproofing fabrics, etc., liable to decomposition or to 
attacks of insects. 

Cadmium alginate, opaque, white film. 

Ferric alginate, deep-red solution ; dark-red film. Suggested use : As a 
styptic for wounds ; in medicine, as a form for administering iron in- 
ternally. 

Cobalt alginate, bright-red solution ; dark-red film. 

Nickel alginate, beautiful blue solution ; brilliant green film. 

Chromium alginate, blue solution ; brilliant olive-green film. 

Manganese alginate, brown solution; olive-brown film. 

Zinc alginate, brilliant, transparent film. Suggested use: Same as that 
for corresponding copper compound, where color of other is objec- 
tionable. 

Tin (stannous) alginate, transparent film. (Stannic tin, transparent film, 
soluble in water.) 

Uranium alginate, deep yellow solution ; brilliant yellow film. 

Platinum alginate, yellow solution ; yellow film. 

Experiments of a preliminary character performed in this labora- 
tory with specimens of the Macrocystis indicate that this plant is as 
rich in alginic acid as the Laminaria. A small quantity of the weed 
when treated in the cold with a dilute solution of sodium carbonate 
formed a solution so viscous that it could scarcely be poured from the 
bottle in which it was prepared. A portion of this solution, upon 
acidification, yielded a brown, flocculent precipitate which on drying 
gave a tough, transparent, horny substance superficially identical 
with the algin described by Stanford. It would appear that among so 
many compounds of unique properties obtainable from the organic 
constituents of the marine algae, some, at least, would be found of 
sufficient usefulness in the arts to make their preparation the basis of 
an industry. However, their discovery was announced 30 years ago 
and as yet they are not being manufactured, it is believed, to any 
great extent. The reason for this doubtless lies in the fact that soon 
after their discovery and before their exploitation, the kelp indus- 
try underwent a tremendous slump owing to the discovery of iodine in 
the Chili niter and its extraction therefrom at a much reduced cost, 
and to the exploitation of the Stassfurt deposits as a source of potash. 
With the decease of the kelp industry also died the chances of devel- 
oping by-products from kelp. 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 253 

Algin and the alginates, and related substances, may upon their 
exploitation prove of such value in the textile and other industries 
as to warrant the adoption of the direct lixiviation method of ex- 
tracting potash and iodine from kelp — the one method which will 
admit of the full utilization of the organic constituents of the kelp. 

THE PRESENT USES OF SEAWEED. 

Agricultural. — The use of seaweed in agriculture as a fertilizer is 
about as old as that science itself. Of the earliest accounts of the 
agriculture of England and Scotland, and of the adjacent islands, 
the consideration of seaweed as a fertilizer constitutes an important 
part. In these countries the privilege of gathering seaweed on the 
shores was a subject of barter; and lands carrying this privilege 
brought a higher price than those without. In certain parts of 
France and in New England they have found considerable and prof- 
itable application. 

The choice of the varieties employed is determined, doubtless, 
largely by chance. The farmer collects the weeds as they are thrown 
upon the shore in tangled masses and can scarcely pick out one 
species and leave another. Generally speaking, he is confined to the 
species which occur in preponderating amount. This is especially 
true if the weeds are cut from the rocks. These are the Laminaria 
and the Fuci. Commingled with them are the eel grasses and other 
forms of sea growth, animal and vegetable. The Fuci (vesiculosus 
and nodosum) on the New England coast constitute at least three- 
fourths of the covering of tidal rocks. 1 

Table XX!X. — Composition, by species, of a mass of seaweed thrown up by the 

tide at Thanet. 

[Leaflet No. 254, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.] 

Per cent. 

Fucus serratus 59. 7 

Glyceria maritima \ 

Salicornia herbacea / 4 - * 

Laminaria 2. 5 

Ulva 1. 4 

Fucus vesiculosus . 6 

Sea mat 1. 2 

Miscellaneous debris 30. 3 

Analyses show that the various seaweeds have different values as 
fertilizers. The Laminaria is richer than the Fucus, and those gath- 
ered in the early summer are more valuable than those collected in 
the fall. The Lestera, Salicornia, and Glyceria, it is recognized by 
the farmer, are distinctly poorer than the Laminaria and Fuci. 
They are more fibrous and do not decompose so readily. 

1 Wheeler and Hartwell Bull. 21, Rhode Island Experiment Station. 



254 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



The composition of the collateral substances occurring commin- 
gled and collected with seaweed is set forth in the following table : 

Table XXXI. — Composition of other substances commonly found with drift kelp. 
[Pamphlet 254, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.] 



Constituent. 



Zostera 
marina 
(Jersey). 



Salicornia 
herbacea 
and Glyceria 
maritima 
(Thanet, 
Kent). 



Sea mat 

(Thanet, 

Kent). 



Small shells; 

debris 

(Thanet, 

Kent). 



Organic 

Nitrogen 

Ash 

Sand 

Pure ash 

Phosphoric acid 

Potash 

Calcium carbonate . 



Per cent. 

76.32 

.68 

23.68 

3.62 

20.06 

.70 

.69 



Per cent. 

61.50 

2.15 

38.50 

16.68 

21.82 

.04 

1.28 



Per cent. 

25.80 

2.37 

74.20 

25.80 

48.40 

.04 

1.30 



Per cent. 

21.86 

.97 

78.14 

44.85 

33.29 

.02 

.48 

21.80 



The method of application of seaweeds to the soil varies but slightly 
from place to place. In the majority of cases, they are added 
direct, either as a top dressing, in summer or autumn, or for plowing 
under. In rare instances, they are composted, being stacked in 
piles, with alternate layers of lime, to rot. This has the advantage 
that the disintegrated weeds are more easily spread uniformly over 
the land and that a more compact and less watery mass remains to 
be hauled to the fields. The use of gypsum is recommended as a 
substitute for that of lime in the composting. 

Because of the readiness with which they rot and with which their 
soluble and valuable constituents are leached out by the rain, the 
plants are hauled directly to the compost heaps or to the field with- 
out curing. This necessity is an unfortunate circumstance, as in the 
wet condition the plants contain about 80 per cent of water. 

On the soil, as a surface dressing or plowed under, the weeds 
decompose rapidly and their constituents, which play a role in the 
plant growth, are easily rendered available. Thus, while the bene- 
ficial effects are short lived, there is the counterbalancing fact that 
their beneficial effects are immediate. 

Harvey is quoted as sajdng that the Laminaria decompose rapidly 
and "melt" in the ground and that, therefore, in common with 
other weeds, they should be used fresh, instead of being allowed to 
lie " in the pit where they soon lose their fertilizing properties." 
It is the verdict of the Rhode Island farmers that it does not pay, 
as a rule, to compost seaweeds. This is especially true of the fiber- 
less, more gelatinous varieties, such as Irish moss. It is claimed 
that the time consumed in the labor of composting is worth more 
than the improved condition of the weeds. 1 When mixed with 
stable manure, their decomposition, it is said, assists in that 
of the manure, and improves the condition of the latter when 
peat has been used in bedding. They are supposed to promote the 
fermentation of the peat. Their ready decomposition in the soil in- 
sures against their opening up and drying out light soils, as stable 
manure sometimes does. 



1 Bull. 21, Rhode Island Experiment Station. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



255 



In Scotland seaweed appears to be held in special favor on the 
southwest coast, where the soil is light. It is, perhaps, the chief 
fertilizer used for early potatoes on the Ayreshire coast, being applied 
at the rate of 25 to 30 tons per acre in the autumn, and then plowed 
under. 

In the trucking region of south Cornwall the sea plants, as a rule, 
are not used in the fresh condition, but are mixed with sand and 
are allowed to rot. The resulting material is applied, together with 
guano and superphosphate, for early potatoes and cauliflower. On 
the north Devon coast seaweed is used for potatoes and other root 
crops. Some is shipped inland by barges for purposes of " spring 
dressing." 

On the Scilly Islands seaweed is applied in amounts as o-reat as 
50 tons per acre for early potatoes, and in smaller amounts for 
wheat. Some is allowed to rot in piles for garden purposes. Here 
the Fucus is preferred to the Laminaria. The material is generally 
gathered between September and March. 

In the isle of Thanet seaweed is applied to alfalfa (lucerne) at the 
rate of 10 to 15 tons per acre in the autumn, and is raked off in the 
spring. It is also applied to the land, and plowed under before 
planting in growing garden as well as farm crops. 

In Jersey use is made of both drift and cut weed ; the fresh weed 
is applied at the rate of 45 tons per acre about the middle of Sep- 
tember to lands which are to be planted in potatoes the following 
spring. This is dug into the soil in December and January. 

Use is also made of seaweed, which has been collected, dried and 
stacked, the curing of which constitutes a regular summer occupa- 
tion for some of the poorer people of the island. 1 

The percentage composition of fresh seaweed as gathered is given 
in the subjoined table: 

Table XXXII. — Composition of fresh seaweed. 



Constituent. 



Water 

Organic matter . 

Nitrogen 

Potash 

Phosphoric acid 



Thanet. 



Per cent. 

75.00 

14.45 

.48 

1.00 

.02 



Scotland, 



Per cent. 

77.41 

16.30 

.54 

1.24 

.09 



Jersey. 



Per cent. 

77.50 

18.10 

.27 

.80 

.12 



United 

States 

(average 

of many 

analyses). 



Per cent. 
81.50 



.73. 
1.50 
.18 



Canada, 2 single 
analyses. 



Per cent. 

63.49 

27.93 

.47 

2.02 

.11 



1 Leaflet No. 254, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. 



Per cent. 

79.23 

15.23 

.17 

.76 

.04 



256 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 



An interesting comparison of the composition of the dry matter 
of seaweed with that of certain other farm products is given in the 
following table: 

Table XXXIII. — Comparison of seaweed with farm crops. 
[Leaflet No. 254, Board of Agriculture and Fisheries.] 



Constituent. 


Fucus 

and Lami- 

naria 

(mean). 


Buck- 
wheat (at 
flower- 
ing)- 


Rye (in 
ear). 


Mustard 
(at flow- 
ering). 


Meadow 
hay. 


Clover 
hay. 


Marigolds 
(roots). 


Wheat 
straw. 




Per cent. 

1.83 

25.47 

4.40 

.24 


Per cent. 
1.18 
12.00 
4.44 

1.22 


Per cent. 
0.70 


Per cent. 
2.30 
14.70 
4.20 

1.00 


Per cent. 

1.74 

7.20 

1.76 

.43 


Per cent. 

2.60 

6.85 

2.22 

.66 


Per cent. 
1.67 
7.21 
3.77 

.62 


Per cent. 
0.63 




5.35 




2.10 

.59 


.80 


Phosphoric acid 


.26 



The actual value of the fertilizing material present in a ton of 
seaweed of the average composition by the usual methods of estima- 
tion would be $1.90 to $2.40. This leaves out of account the sodium, 
calcium, and magnesium salts which, under proper conditions, are 
of distinct value. 

As seaweeds more or less entirely take the place of stable manure 
it is only fair in estimating its value to compare it with manure. In 
such a comparison a distinct advantage is possessed by seaweed, in 
that it is free from seeds of land plants, so that its application does 
not introduce seeds of grass and weeds, as does that of manure. The 
use of manure as a fertilizer for certain tubers, especially potatoes, 
promotes the development of injurious growths and the inoculation 
of the soil with the bacteria of plant diseases. Beeause of its free- 
dom from such disadvantages, seaweed is to be recommended. 

Seaweeds have found use as a fertilizer for various crops. On 
account of their high content of potassium salts they are regarded 
as a potassium-bearing fertilizer and are especially recommended for 
use with those crops whose growth is especially promoted by potas- 
sium fertilizers. They can scarcely be regarded as a balanced or 
complete fertilizer on account of their low phosphorus content. 
Their mixture with some phosphate should be advantageous. 

On the Hebrides Islands and other outlying British islands sea- 
weed constitutes the main fertilizer, and, according to Mr. A. V. 
Campbell, of Rothamsted, it is the dependence of the Jersey potato 
growers. At Rye Beach, N. H., the great success had there with red 
clover is attributed to the use of seaweed applications. The practice 
dates from the settlement of the colony. 

The extent of the use of seaweed as a fertilizer is not limited by 
the amounts available, for they are enormous, but by the distances 
from shore the plants can be hauled profitably. The comparatively 
great amount of water contained by the fresh plants makes them ex- 
ceedingly heavy and bulky and adds greatly to the expense of their 
cartage. Indeed, this fact makes it unprofitable for the farmer to 
transport them any great distance. Accordingly, it is found that 
they are rarely used on land lying more than 10 or 15 miles from 
the shore. 

The seaweed used as fertilizer in Rhode Island during the year 
1885, according to the Rhode Island State census, was valued at 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 257 

$65,044. For the sake of comparison, it may be cited that the value of 
the commercial fertilizer used in the State during the same year was 
$164,133. 1 

As a food. — The utilization of seaweed for dietary purposes has 
received more attention and has undergone a greater development 
in Japan than in any other country. 

The three main products of seaweed which are used as foods bear 
the local names of kanten, kombu (or kobu), and amanori (or laver). 
Kanten, or " seaweed isinglass," is prepared from the Gelidia by dry- 
ing or curing in the sun, during which operation they become 
bleached, and by boiling out the jelly formed. This is subsequently 
molded or shaped into the desired forms. The product is pearly 
white, shiny, and semitransparent, and is tasteless and odorless. In 
cold water it swells but does not dissolve, but in boiling water it dis- 
solves, and on cooling it forms a jelly. 

In Japan kanten is used for food in the form of jellies and as 
adjuvants to soups, sauces, etc., and in foreign countries in the various 
food preparations where gelatine is required. It finds application 
in the textile industries, as a coagulant for clarifying the various 
liquids for drinking purposes, and in China as a substitute for edible 
birds' nests. Kanten is the agar-agar employed by the bacteriologist 
as a culture medium. 

Table XXXIV. — Analysis of kanten. 

[Analyses by (1) Kellner, Agricultural College, Tokyo University, and (2) Imperial Fisheries Bureau.] 



Constituent. 


1 


2 


Water 


Per cent. 
22.80 
11.71 


Per cent. 
22 29 


Protein 


6.85 


Fiber 


6.73 


Carbohydrates 


62.05 
3.44 


60.32 


Ash 


3 81 







The production for 1900 was 2,370,517 pounds, valued at $576,500; 
for 1901, 2,177,867 pounds, valued at $534,232; for 1902 (estimated), 
3,000,000 pounds, valued at $750,000. The exports of kanten for 34 
years ending in 1902 were 49,595,288 pounds, valued at $7,323,455. 
In 1902 the largest exportation was reached, equaling 2,207,455 
pounds, valued at $544,272. 

Kombu is a general term applied to various sorts of foods made 
from kelps of the genuses Laminaria and Alaria. The plants are 
cured on shore and are then tied into bundles for shipment to the 
kombu manufactories. There they are put through an involved 
process during which they are sorted, dyed, cooked, and pressed, and 
cut into desired shapes. 

Kombu, in its various shapes, is one of the staple articles of diet 
of the Japanese. Some varieties are eaten directly, while others are 
cooked with the various meats and vegetables. Its composition varies 
somewhat, being determined by the species of kelp from which it is 
made. The subjoined table of analyses, by Oshima, Agricultural 
College, Sappiro, gives the chemical composition of the principal 
species of kelp used in this industry. 

1 Bull. 21, Rhode Island Experiment Station. 
20827°— S. Doc. 190, 62-2 17 



258 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Table XXXV. — Composition of principal species of kelp used in the Jcombu 

industry. 



Species. 



Water. 



Protein. 



Fat. 



Soluble 

nonni- 

trogenous 

matter. 



Fiber. 



Ash. 



Laminaria angustata. . . 
Laminaria longissima. . 

Laminaria japonica 

Laminaria ochotensis. . 

Laminaria religiosa 

Laminaria fragilis 

Anthrotbamnus bifldus 



Per cent. 
22.82 
25.94 
22.97 
23.99 
22.75 
23.10 
24.44 



Per cent. 
5.49 
6.72 
4.96 
6.66 
4.72 
4.03 
5.82 



Per cent. 

1.52 

1.73 

1.59 

.86 

.82 

.65 

.74 



Per cent. 
47.83 
31.90 
47.49 
41.92 
42.85 
40.39 
45.57 



Per cent. 
4.55 
6.42 
5.83 
6.03 
10.20 
7.15 
6.44 



Per cent. 
18.69 
27.29 
17.16 
21.31 
18.63 
24.66 
17.00 



The amounts of kelp gathered for the kombu manufactories and 
the sums paid the fishermen therefor during three years, as recorded 
by official census, are: 



Year. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


1899. 


58,929,983 
53,750,650 
76,806,975 


$417,332 


1900 


301,389 


1901 


464,082 







Figures for the value of the finished product are not given; but 
that is estimated as an increase of 60 to 75 per cent over the cost of 
the raw material. 

The exports for the five years, 1898-1902, inclusive, are given as: 



Year. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


1898 


53,031,761 
01,596,594 
48, 054, 681 
81,212,970 
52, 491, 166 


$355, 646 
473,041 
441, 864 


1899 


1900 


1901 


774, 164 


J902 


404, 744 





Amanori or laver. — Amanori or laver is a preparation made from 
the seaweed of the genus Porphyra. These plants are obtained 
almost exclusively from groves artificially propagated. The algae 
culture of the red laver {Porphyra lancineata or vulgaris) is one of 
the most important branches of the seaweed industry. In 1901, 2,242 
acres were under cultivation and produced a crop of 4,769,000 
pounds, valued at $239,536. In the Tokyo region, where 951.5 acres 
were under cultivation, the product per acre was valued at $156. 

The preparation of laver is simple as compared with that of 
kombu. The plants are gathered, cleaned, cured, and tied up into 
bundles for the market. It is eaten in soups, with sauces, and in 
other ways. The composition of Porphyra is given in the follow- 
ing table : 

Table XXXVI. — Results of analyses of Porphyra. 



Locality. 



Weight 
10 sheets. 



Water. 



Protein. 



Fat. 



Ash. 



Sana 

Do.... 

Fukagawa. 
Shinagawa 



Grams. 
41 
37 
32 
30 



Per cent. 
14.58 
16.40 
20.42 
15.48 



Per cent. 
32.44 
35.63 
36.26 
34.35 



Per cent. 

0.70 

.50 

1.21 

.65 



Per cent. 
9.00 
9.34 
8.83 
10.69 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 259 

The foods produced in Japan in the form of kanten, kombu, and 
laver have an annual value of $1,778,000. The value of the exports 
of kanten and kombu alone is $948,000. 

Small amounts of the seaweed foods are exported to this country, 
but so far they have not gained very great popularity. As an 
article of export, however, kanten and kombu might be manufac- 
tured in this country, as the plants from which they are prepared 
are found in abundance on our coasts. 

Concerning the Japanese seaweeds, Kinch 1 says : 

There is some confusion in the books about the names and species of the two 
principal seaweeds. Thunberg and Kaempfer give to kombu the name Fncus 
saccharinus, Fucus being at that time the generic appellation of nearly all 
alga?. Thunberg mentions that it is sometimes called " komb " or " kobu " or 
even " kosi." In Golownin's narrative of his captivity in Japan (1811-1813) he 
mentions the gathering of seaweed of a kind called by the Russians " sea cab- 
bage " and by the Japanese " kambon." This is now called in Yezo " kombu," 
which name is on this island generally pronounced " kobu." The English trans- 
lator of Golownin refers this seaweed to the kind known as dhulish or dulse in 
the north of Scotland and Ireland, and when boiled as sloke, sloak, or slaak, 
but this latter is Porphyra lanciniata, nearly allied to the Japanese nori. In 
some books Fucus saccharinus and Laminaria saccharina are spoken of as dif- 
ferent substances, but the former is merely the old name. An allied species, 
L. potatorum, is used by the natives of Australia and in New Zealand and 
Van Diemans as food and for ranking instruments, and still another species 
is used on the west coast of South America. 

Closely allied to Rhodymcnia palmata is a Japanese alga, R. textorii (Su- 
ringar). Plocaria Candida is the agar agar of the Malays and imported to Eng- 
land as Ceylon moss, and from this species the edible birds' nests so esteemed 
in China are principally constructed. Oelideum corneum (Lamour.) is often 
sold as agar agar. It is the algue de Java, known in China as Niu-mau, or ox- 
hair vegetable. Its gelatining principle has been called gelose. Gracilaria 
lichenoides is also known as agar agar. 

In Europe the Laminaria, Sacchorera, and L. digitata, the former said to 
contain as high as 15 per cent of a sugar resembling mannite, are eaten. 

The so-called Irish moss, or carageen, Chondrus crispy s (Lingbye), is perhaps 
the most extensively used for dietetic purposes of the seaweeds in Europe at 
the present time; a closely allied species, Chondrus punctatus (Suringar), 
occurs in the Japan Sea. 

The dulse of the Scotch and the dylisk, dillish, dullisgor, duileisg (leaf of the 
water) of the Highlands is Rhodymenia palmata (Grev), which also contains 
mannite and is sudorific. It is largely used in some of the maritime countries 
of Europe from Iceland to Greece. In Kamschatka a spirituous liquor is made 
from it. Cattle are very fond of it. Before tobacco was so easily obtained the 
Highlanders and Irish were in the habit of chewing it. It is parasitical on 
Fuci and Laminarse. The dulse of the southwest of England is another species, 
Iridwa edulis (Bory). 

The Irish moss has found some use as a food in New England, 
where it is used as a jelly in certain dietary preparations, resembling 
blancmange. To extract the jelly, the weed is placed in a cloth bag 
and boiled in water. The extract is flavored and otherwise pre- 
pared for eating. On the New England coast the Irish moss is 
gathered from the rocks, where it grows, by means of specially con- 
structed rakes. It is then cleansed and carefully cured by spreading 
on the beach in the sun. It is sent to the market in barrels holding 
100 pounds. The wholesale price in 1903 was 5 to 5.5 cents per 
pound. The census of the Bureau of Fisheries for 1902 showed that 
136 men were occupied in the Irish moss industry and employed 
apparatus — boots, rakes, etc. — valued at $12,000. The output that 
year was 740,000 pounds, with a market value of $33,000. 

1 Trans. Asiatic Soc. Japan, 8 (III), 369 (1880). 



260 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 



It is of interest that the price of Irish moss in this country, in 1835, 
was $1 per pound, and that this price declined to 25 cents in 1853 
and to 3 to 3.5 cents per pound in 1880. Its present retail price, in 
boxes of 1 pound and one-half pound, is 45 and 25 cents, respectively. 

The Irish moss industry in this country is confined practically to 
Massachusetts and New Hampshire. 

As a cattle food, it is stated, the Irish moss has also found some 
application, especially for feeding young calves and pigs. In both 
Norway and Scotland the herds visit the shores at low tide to feed 
on the common Fuci. These are gathered by the Norwegian and 
Scottish peasants, are boiled and mixed with meal, and the resulting 
mixture is fed to pigs, horses, and cattle. 

The following table contains results of analysis of two varieties 
of sea plants occurring on the American coast : 

Table XXXVIL — Results of analyses of American sea plants. 

[Cited from Bulletin 21, Rhode Island Experiment Station.] 



Constituent. 


Eel grass 
(Zostera 
marina). 


Rock weed 

(Fucus 
vesiculosus) 




Per cent. 

26.64 

.19 

9.05 

32.02 

6.03 

26.07 


Per cent. 
27.11 




.67 




4.40 




41.14 




8.21 


Ash 


18.47 







We are not aware that seaweeds have been tried to any extent as a cattle 
feed in this country, though it is not improbable the Irish moss and even other 
varieties might be found useful, more especially in the rearing of calves and 
swine. The question of this economical application as a cattle food, however, 
would depend largely upon the cost and supply of other foods. It would doubt- 
less be a question if cattle accustomed to the best class of foods would take so 
readily to a partial diet of seaweed as do the Scotch and Norwegian herds. 1 

Seaweed glue. — In Japan seaweed glue is known as " f unori." It 
is prepared by a simple operation from the seaweed of the genus 
Gloiopeltis (G. coliformis and G. intricata). 

Funori, Oloiopeltis intricata (Suringar), is largely used for making size, which 
has numerous applications, and Tsunomata, Gymnogongrus pinnulatus (Har- 
vey) or G. japonicns (Sur.), is used for the same purpose. 2 

This gum is prepared from the plants directly. They are gath- 
ered, cleansed, and cured in such a way that during the operation 
they become coalesced into sheets. The sheets are done up into 
bundles of convenient size for the market. 

Funori is used principally for glazing and stiffening fabrics and 
as a substitute for starch. Its price varies with its quality, from 24 
to 3 cents per pound. The output and its value for the five years 
preceding and including 1901 is given as follows : 



1 Wheeler and Hartwell, loc. cit. 
*Kinch, loc. cit. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OE THE UNITED STATES. 
Table XXXVIII. — Output and value of funori. 

[Bulletin 21, Bureau of Fisheries, 1904.] 



261 



Year. 


Quantity. 


Value. 


1897 


Pounds. 
1, 429, 111 
987,862 
2,799,253 
2, 135, 677 
2,943,383 


$53, 857 
41,478 

145,326 
77,033 

130, 809 


1898 


1899 


1900 


1901 





Numerous gums possessing, it is claimed, valuable qualities have 
been prepared from the kelps of the British Islands, and a discus- 
sion of these and their proposed uses was given under the considera- 
tion of the by-products of the lixiviation method of extracting potash 
from kelp, and will not be repeated here. 

Iodine. — The extraction of iodine from kelp is among the newer 
of the kelp industries of Japan. Its development has reached such a 
point that the iodine produced is sufficient to meet the domestic needs. 
Hence, no iodine is imported. That the industry there probably has 
reached its greatest possible development is indicated by the fact 
that the manufacturers are already experiencing considerable diffi- 
culty in obtaining sufficient raw material wherewith to operate. This 
situation may be relieved, however, by the adoption of algae-cultural 
methods for the propagation of kelp groves. The seaweeds are 
burned in the crude, heap-burning method described in another 
paragraph, and the ashes are leached by the burners or are shipped to 
the lixiviators. 

Glasgow has been the center of the iodine- from-kelp industry since 
the inception of that industry, about the year 1841. The imports of 
kelp (kelp ash) into the Clyde in that year amounted to 2,565 tons. 
In 1845 there were four small works engaged in the extraction of 
iodine and utilizing 6,000 tons of kelp ; this number was increased to 
20 in 1846. In 1877 this number had decreased to three. The price 
of iodine was the object of speculation and varied at times with 
great suddenness. The range in price during the days of the in- 
dustry was between $1 and $8 per pound, the price of the raw material 
remaining the same the while. The following table gives the history 
of the Glasgow kelp industry during 35 years of its existence. 

Table XXXIX. — Amount of kelp ash lixiviated and the price paid at Glasgow, 

18U-1815. 

[Stanford, Chemical News, 35; 172 (1877).] 



Years. 


Kelp used. 


Price of 

iodine 

per pound. 


Average. 


Quantity. 


Price. 


1841-1845 


Tons. 
1,887- 6,086 
3,627-11,421 
6,349-14,018 
8, 116-10, 923 


SI. 12-S7. 46 
2. 08- 5. 10 
1.20- 3.28 
2. 40- 8. 16 


Tons. 
3,133 
5,811 
9,730 
9,187 


$2.82 


1846-1855 


3.10 


1856-1865 


2.12 


1866-1875 


3.83 







262 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

At the beginning of the nineteenth century kelp (kelp ash) was 
worth $100 to $110 per ton, and the western islands of Scotland 
alone produced 20,000 tons (value $2,000,000). The importation of 
barilla reduced the price to an average of $52 per ton. Later the 
duty was taken off barilla and salt, with the result that by 1831 the 
price of kelp had fallen to $10 per ton. In 1845 the development of 
the iodine industry enhanced the value of kelp, but only of those 
varieties rich in iodine. These were also rich in potassium chloride, 
so a use for this salt was developed. At one time the potassium 
chloride had a value of $125 per ton. The development of the Stass- 
furt deposits and the exploitation of the potassium salts there ob- 
tained caused a depression in that price to about one-third. 

Iodine is present in the niter of the Chile deposits to the extent, it 
is said, of 0.16 per cent, or 3.58 pounds per ton. Outside of Japan, 
nearly all the iodine now produced comes from the Chile deposits. 

To-day the only producers of iodine from kelp in Scotland are 
the British Chemical Co. and H. C. Fairlie & Co. (Ltd.), Falkirk, 
and it is said that the business is much depressed and is yearly de- 
clining in volume. 

J. W. TUKRENTINE. 



Appendix "R. 
A DISCUSSION OF THE PROBABLE FOOD VALUE OF MARINE ALGAE. 



Articles of diet may, broadly speaking, be divided into two gen- 
eral classes — stimulants, or appetizers, and foods proper. Some 
members of the first class, like the condiments, have no food value 
whatever. By food value is meant capability to act as a source of 
material for growth and repair, or of energy. The condiments 
must not for that reason be neglected. They are probably necessary 
under certain conditions, particularly in the Tropics, to counteract 
by artificial stimulation of the appetite the effect which the high tem- 
peratures have of cutting down the heat production in the body by 
limiting the food consumed. Without the stimulation afforded by 
condiments, not sufficient food might be taken to fulfill the minimal 
requirements of the body. However, not all members of the first 
class are without food value. Many articles of diet have a certain 
.food value, though, in the main, they serve either to stimulate the 
appetite or to give bulk to the food. This is true of some of the vege- 
tables like lettuce and cabbage which consist mostly of water, cellu- 
lose, and salts. Since cellulose does not seem to be well utilized by 
man, though it is better utilized by herbivorous animals, the food 
value of these articles, particularly since their price is high, is prob- 
ably not great. 

The foods proper perform in the main two functions. They sup- 
ply the material from which the tissue waste is repaired, as well as 
the energy with which the work and functions of the organism 
are carried on. The main materials in the foods which perform 
these functions are the salts, the proteins or olbuminous substances, 
the fats, and the carbohydrates or sugars. The salts furnish no 
energy and are usually present in such abundance in most diets that 
it is not necessary as a rule to consider them in estimating the value 
of a food. The proteins, or albuminous substances, are perhaps the 
most important, since they are quite indispensable and furnish both 
material to repair tissue waste as well as energy. The fats and also 
the sugars are in the main energy-yielding foods, furnishing the fuel 
for the organism, the fats having a higher energy value than the 
sugars, though less digestible. 

Hence it is quite evident that to estimate the value of any article 
of diet it is necessary to know its chemical composition. It is in- 
dispensable to know just how much carbohydrate, protein, and fat 
it contains. However, it is not sufficient to know what the propor- 
tions of these substances are; it is necessary, also, to know their 
nature. Thus not all proteins are of equal food value. Gelatin, for 
instance, is not capable of supporting life alone, while some other 
proteins may. The same thing may be said of the fats, for fats with 

263 



£64 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

a high melting point are less well absorbed than those with a low one. 
The carbohydrate starch is an excellent food ; cellulose an indifferent 
one. A consideration of the probable food value of marine algae 
must, therefore, be preceded by a studjr of their chemical compo- 
sition. The substances which are of interest in this connection are 
the proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. 

PROTEINS OF SEAWEEDS. 

Unfortunately, these can be dismissed in a few words, because 
almost nothing is known about them. Little has been done with 
them in recent years. The only data that exist are on the " crude 
protein " of a few forms. The following table gives the figures for 
the air dry material : x 




"Crude 
protein.' : 



Ulva latissima 

Velonia aegagrophila . 
Gracilaria conferva. . - 

Fucus vesiculosus 

Vaucheria pilus 



Per cent. 
29.75 
7.62 
20.01 
27.11 
20.50 



Per cent. 

13.35 
5.36 

16. 25 
8.21 
6.88 



Warington gives the following figures 2 for the dry substance : 

Per cent. 

Porphyra vulgaris 6. 32-26. 14 

Enteromorpha compressa 12. 41 

Capea elongata (Laminaria) 8.99 

Cystoseira sp 3. 24 

Laminaria saccharina 7. 79 

The introgenous material is much greater in young than in old 
plants (Warington). 

Of the nature of the protein nothing whatever is known, except 
that it is supposed that the iodine present is organically combined 
with protein. 3 The evidence for this is not conclusive. It is reason- 
ing by analogy from the conditions which are known to obtain among 
the corals. Certainly in B onnemaisonia asparagoides, a member of 
the order of Florideae, the iodine seems to be free, for starch is blued 
directly. 4 From the fact that many marine algae contain very large 
quantities of sulphur one may venture the guess that these may con- 
tain protein very rich in sulphur. From the fact that Iridea edidis 
yields an ash with 14 per cent phosphoric acid (P 2 5 ) one may 
guess that it may contain protein very rich in phosphorus. This, as 
far as could be ascertained, constitutes nearly all that is known about 
the nitrogenous material of marine algae. If the above figures are 
reliable the nitrogen content of many of the marine algae would seem 
to be as high as that of many forage plants and vegetables. How- 
ever, without further investigation it can not be said that they have, 
as regards the protein, the same food value. The ordinary method 

i Wolff : Aschenanalysen, 2, 108 (1880). 

2 Warington, R. : Agricultural Chemistry in Japan. The Chemical News, 40, 195 (1879). 

3 Eschle : Ueber den jodgehalt einiger Algenarten Zeitschrift fur phvsiologische Chemie, 
28, 30 (1897). 

* Golenkin, M. : Algol ogische Notizen. Bulletin de la Socie'te' Imperiale des Natu- 
ralistes de Moscou. N. S., 8, 257 (1894). 



FERTILIZES RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 265 

of estimating " crude protein " is to determine the nitrogen and mul- 
tiply by the factor 6.25. This is done on the assumption that all 
the nitrogen is present in the form of protein and that the protein 
has the composition of average protein. Without further investi- 
gation it is impossible to say whether either of these assumptions is 
warranted. We know that in many plants & considerable part of 
the nitrogen is present in the form of organic bases, amides, or 
even nitrates. The organic bases, such as betain and cholin, have no 
food value, while the amides are useless to man, though it is possible 
they are utilized by herbivora. Moreover, as already stated, all 
proteins are not of equal value. It is a matter of common knowledge 
that the proteins in such substances as gristle are not as well utilized 
as more soluble ones. As long as we know nothing concerning the 
quantity of nonprotein nitrogen in algse, nor of the quantity and 
nature of the proteins present in them, it is idle to speculate con- 
cerning their value as a protein food. Investigations of these prob- 
lems, which are very greatly to be desired, may prove that some of 
the algse have the protein food value of vegetables and fodders. It 
is not likely that any of them, as far as the protein is concerned, will 
prove to have anything like the food value of our most important 
foods — like the cereals and meats. It may, perhaps, be worth while to 
add that the desirable investigations which have just been sketched 
should be supplemented by actual feeding experiments upon man and 
animals. 

FATS. 

The only fact concerning the fat content of marine algae that a 
careful search of the literature has revealed is that Fucus vesiculosus 
in the air-dry state contained 27.11 per cent water and 0.67 per cent 
fat, while Viva latissima, Valonia aegogrophila, Sphaerococcus con- 
fervoides, Enter omorplia intestinalis, Zoostera mediterranean contain 
less. Solenia attenuata contains 3.87 per cent and Vaucheria pilus 
2.94 per cent of fat. 1 It seems that no other species have been exam- 
ined. There do not even seem to be data on the ether-soluble material. 
From these few analyses it would seem that, as was to be expected, 
the fat content is not great. Probably all species contain some of it, 
since fat is never quite absent from living things. Nothing is known 
of the nature of the fat. The chances, therefore, are that the fat 
of marine algae is not likely to be an important factor in giving them 
food value. If any of the plants contained greater quantities they 
would in all probability have attracted attention. 

CARBOHYDRATES OR SUGARS. 

Aside from 'water, salts, and protein, the main constituents of 
marine algae seem to be carbohydrates. In consequence, these have 
been most studied. Nevertheless, our knowledge is full of gaps, 
either because the investigations are antiquated or because only a 
few European or Japanese species have been examined. Not many 
characteristically American ones have been studied at all, and these 
are mostly rock weeds, not kelps. 

1 Sestini, P., Bomboletti, A., Benzoni, V., and Del Torre, G. : Sopra alcune piante marine 
della Laguna Veneta. Le Stazioni Sperimentali Agrarie Italiane 5, 207 (1877). See also 
Centralblatt fur Agrikulturchemie 1, 875 (1878). 



266 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 



Before discussing the distribution of carbohydrates among these 
plants it is necessary to consider the various kinds of carbohydrates 
which occur in them. Carbohydrates are all derivatives of simple 
sugars, the commonest of which are glucose and fructose. Such sim- 
ple sugars contain, usually, six carbon atoms. Sugars with a smaller 
number of carbon atoms also occur, but only those with five and six 
are of interest in this connection. Those with six carbon atoms are 
termed hexoses; those with only five, pentoses. By the combina- 
tion of two molecules of simple sugars more complex sugars, called 
bioses, are formed. The commonest bioses are cane sugar and milk 
sugar. More than two molecules of simple sugars may combine to 
form more and more complex compounds. Thus starch is a combina- 
tion of a large but as yet undetermined number of molecules of the 
simple sugar glucose. Such complex carbohydrates composed of a 
large number of simple sugar molecules are termed polysaccharides. 

The carbohydrates of interest in this connection may therefore be 
classed as follows : 



Simple carbohydrates : 

Glucose or dextrose. 

Fructose or levulose. 

Mannose. 

Galactose. 

Pentoses and their derivatives, 
the methylpentoses. 
Bioses. 



Polysaccharides : 

Dextrans consisting of glucose. 

Starch. 

Cellulose. 
Galactans consisting of galactose. 
Mannans consisting of mannose. 
Pentosans consisting of pentose. 
Levulans consisting of levulose. 



Besides the sugars and carbohydrates, the closely related alcohol 
mannite is said to occur in Laminaria, 1 Halydris, and Fucus vesi- 
culosus. 

Free simple sugars like glucose do not seem to occur as such to 
any appreciable extent in the marine algae, though reported by 
Bauer in Laminaria. Bioses, such as cane sugar, also seem to be 
rare or absent. Most abundant, on the contrary, are the polysac- 
charides. 

Of polysaccharides starch does not seem to occur very abundantly. 
It is said to occur in Neomeris kelleri and Polyphysa peniculus and 
in various species of the order Florideae. However, most of the 
statements concerning the occurrence of starch are unreliable and 
need verification, since in many instances they are based on the 
microchemical test with iodine. This test, as is well known, is posi- 
tive with a number of other polysaccharides. 

Other dextrans, more or less resembling cellulose and not as yet 
sufficiently investigated chemically, seem somewhat more abundant. 
Cellulose has been reported in Vaucheria. A dextran has been re- 
ported by Bauer 2 in Laminaria and also by Van Wisselingh. Ses- 
tini 3 gives the following table of the cellulose and water content of 
air-dry algae: 

1 Stenhouse, .T., Ueber das Vorkommen von Mannit in Laminaria und einigen anderen 
Seegrasern. Liebig's Annalen, 51, 349 (lS^). 

2 Bauer, R. W., Ueber eine aus Laminariaschleim enstehende Zuckerart. Berichte der 
Deutschen Chemischen Gesellscbaft, 22, 618 (1880). 

8 Sestini, F., et al., op. cit. ; Sestini, P., Sopra alcune plante marine utili all' agricoltura. 
Ibid, 5, 102 (1876). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 267 

Cellulose and water content of air-dry algae. 



Algae. 


Water. 


"Cellu- 
lose." 




Per cent. 
29.75 
7.62 
20.01 
27.11 
20.50 


Per cent. 
1 77 




3 65 


Gracilaria confervoides 


3 10 


Fucus vesiculosus 


4 40 


Vaucheria pilua 


8 89 







Unfortunately these determinations were made by an antiquated 
method, and it is doubtful whether the substances termed " cellulose " 
were actually such. 

Galactans seem of all polysaccharides the most widely distributed. 
They occur in Gracilaria lichenoides ; x in Gracilaria coronopifolia 2 
Asparogopsis sanfordiana, 2 Gymnogongrus vermicularis americana 2 
Hypnea nidiflca, 2 , Ahnfeldtia concinna, 2 Gymnogongrus discipli- 
nalis, 2 Porphyria laciniata, 3 and probably in Fucus amylaceus. 1 
They are also found in Chinese moss (Sphaerococcus lichenoides)*, 
in agar agar (Gelidium corneum),* and in Irish moss {Ghondrus 
crispus). 5 Galactan has also been reported in Sphaerococcus crispus 
(Wisselingh) and Gigartina mamillosa. G It is therefore evident 
that galactans are very widely distributed. Perhaps they occur in 
all red algae. 

Mannan has but rarely been reported. Tollens and Oshima 7 found 
it in Porphyra laciniata together with galactan and pentosan. It also 
occurs in Haliseris pardalis* a Hawaiian edible form. These seem 
to be the only well-authenticated cases, but mannite, which in plants 
generally seems to be derived from mannan and vice versa, has been 
reported by Stenhouse 9 in Laminaria, Halydris, and Fumes vesicu- 
losus. It is therefore likely that these plants contain mannans. 

Pentosans, on the other hand, are most abundant. They occur in 
Japanese " Nori " (Porphyra laciniata, Laminaria, and other sea- 
weeds). 10 Methylpentosans occur in Fucus, 11 in Laminaria, 12 Asco- 
phyllum nodosum, 1 * Asparagopsis sanfordiana 1 * Enteromorpha 

1 Greenish, H., Untersuchung von Fucus amylaceus. Berichte der Deutschen Chem- 
ischen Gesellschaft, 14, 2253 (1881) ; Morin, H., Sur la gelose. Comptes Rendus Acade- 
mic des Sciences, 90, 924 (188) ; Bauer. R. W.. Ueber den aus Agar- Agar enstehenden 
Zucker, iiber eine neue Saure aus der Arabinose nebst dem Versuch ciner classification 
der gallertbildenden Kohlehydrate nach den aus ihnen enstehenden Zuckerarten. Journal 
fur Praktische Chemie, N. S., 30, 367 (1884). 

2 Swartz, M. D., Nutrition Investigations on the Carbohydrates of Lichens, Algse, and 
Related Substances. Trans. Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sciences, 16, 247—382 (1911). 

3 Oshima, Kintaro. and Tollens, B., Ueber das Nori aus Japan. Berichte der Deutschen 
Chemischen Gesellschaft, 34, 1422 (1901). 

4 Payen. M., Sur le gelose et les nids de salangane. Comptes Rendus Academic des 
Sciences, 49, 521 (1859). 

B Miither, Untersuchungen iiber Fucus arten, Laminaria und Carragheen-moos, sowie die 
hydrolytisch daraus entstehenden Substanzen und iiber Derivate derselben, besonders 
Fucose und Fuconsaure. In. Diss. Gottingen, 1903. 

8 Haedicke, J., Bauer, R. W., and Tollens, B., Ueber Galactose aus Carragheen-moos. 
Liebig's Annalen der Chemie, 238, 302 (1887). 

7 Tollens, B., and Oshima, K., Op. cit. 

8 Swartz, Op. cit., pp. 225, 307, and 313 (1911). 

9 Stenhouse, J., Op. cit. 

i° Oshima, K., and Tollens, B., Op. cit. 

u Gunther, A., and Tollens, B., Ueber die Fucose, einen der Rhamnose isomeren Zuker 
aus Seetang. (Fucus- Arten.) Ibid., 23, 2585 (1890). 

^Miither, A., and Tollens, B., Ueber die Producte der Hydrolyse von Seetang (Fucus), 
Laminaria und Carragheen-moos, ibid., 37, 298 (1904) ; Ueber die Fucose und die Fucon- 
saure und die Vergleichnng der Eigenschaften derselben mit den von Votocek fur Rhodeose 
und Rhodeonsaure angegebenen, ibid., 37, 306 (1904). 

13 Sollied, P. R., Uber das Vorkommen von Methylpentosan in Naturprodukten. Chem- 
iker Zeitung, 25, 1138 (1901). 

11 Swartz, Op. cit. 



268 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE "UNITED STATES. 

intestinalis, 1 Gracilaria cor onopi folia, 1 6rym.no gongrus vermicularis 
americana 1 Haliseris pardalis, 1 Hypnea nidifica 1 Ehodymenia pal- 
mata, 1 used in Ireland as dulse, and in Ahnfeldtia concinna, 1 and 
Viva lactuca. 1 

Levulans are of very rare occurrence in seaweeds. Sebor reports 
small amounts in Carragheen moss (Chondrus crispus) ; Cramer in 
Acetabularia crenulata and mediterraTiea. 

The occurrence and distribution of the carbohydrates has now 
been enumerated. Simple sugars are of rare and scanty occurrence. 
Starch is rare and as yet inadequately studied. Cellulose is not in- 
frequent. Mannan and levulan are rare. Galactan is very common 
and abundant. Pentosan is perhaps the most abundant of all. 

The next point to be considered is the food value of the different 
carbohydrates. The simple sugars with six carbon atoms are most 
of them of great food value; but as they do not occur free to any 
great extent in seaweeds, they can not be of any great importance. 

The polysaccharides, on the other hand, are of very varying value. 
No polysaccharide can be absorbed from the intestines without having 
first been decomposed into simpler compounds. The value of the 
polysaccharides will therefore depend upon the ease with which they 
are decomposed and upon the value of the resulting decomposition 
products. 

This decomposition may be brought about in one of two ways. 
The enzymes secreted by the intestinal tract may convert the poly- 
saccharides into simple sugars, which are readily absorbed and 
utilized; or the intestinal bacteria may decompose them into such 
compounds as simple fatty acids, marsh gas, and the like. 

The action of enzymes is limited almost entirely to starch. This 
is converted into glucose, rendering starch a most excellent food. 
Unfortunately the quantities of starch discovered in seaweeds at the 
present date of writing do not seem to be great, so that from this 
point of view seaweeds do not promise to be of great food value. 

No enzyme known to decompose cellulose, galactan, mannan, pen- 
tosan, or levulan has ever been found in man or domesticated animals. 
The decomposition, as far as it takes place at all, must be brought 
about by intestinal microorganisms. 

Now, the ease with which the different polysaccharides are attacked 
by microorganisms varies greatly. Cellulose seems to be most easily 
attacked, next mannan, pentosan is very resistant, while galactan is 
almost unchanged. Hence galactans, in the form of agar-agar, are 
extensively used by bacteriologists. 2 However, the experiments on 
which these conclusions are based are merely test-tube experiments. 
It is probable, as will appear, that some of the polysaccharides are 
more easily attacked in the intestinal canal. Moreover, the test-tube 
experiments were carried out with ordinary fermenting and putrify- 
ing microorganisms. It is probable that had marine microorganisms 
been used different results would have been obtained. There must be 
such organisms in the sea, otherwise there would be accumulations 
of dead marine vegetation analogous to peat formation on land. 
This is a question that, for practical reasons, deserves investigation, 
since it might be possible to make practical use of these organisms 
in a process of fermentation such as is employed in making ensilage. 

1 Swartz, Op. cit. 2 Swartz : Op. cit, pp. 323-331. 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 269 

As already indicated the various polysaccharides, while not very 
easily attacked in the test tube, behave somewhat differently in the 
intestines. Cellulose disappears to a considerable extent in the intes- 
tinal canal of man, and to a far greater extent in that of the herbi- 
vora. It is not absorbed as sugar, but probably for the greater part 
as butyric and related acids. How far these constitute a food for 
man is as yet entirely an open question. The best that can be ex- 
pected of them is that they serve as sources of energy. For herbivor- 
ous animals it has been definitely settled that they serve as sources 
of energy. They are, even for herbivora, not nearly as valuable as 
starch, sugar, protein, or fat. 

Of the pentosans about the same statements may be made. They 
also disappear from the intestinal canal to a greater or less extent; 
but usually more extensively in herbivora than in man. 

Just how much energy value they have for man is not known, 
though they are of considerable use to cattle. Together with cellu- 
lose they are the main constituents of hay, straw, and roughage gen- 
erally. The pentosans of a few seaweeds have been fed and it has 
been shown that in man 100 per cent of dulse pentosan {Rhody- 
menia palmata) disappears in the intestines, while of Limu elecle 
(Enter omorpha intestinalis) , a Hawaiian edible seaweed, 69 per 
cent, and of Limu pahapaha {Viva lac.tuca laciniata and Viva fas- 
data) but 34 per cent disappear. 1 It is not known how useful to the 
organism the material that disappears may be. This could only be 
determined by experiments in the respiration calorimeter. These 
have not, hitherto, been undertaken, although it is extremely im- 
portant that this be done. 

The galactans disappear far less easily from the intestines. Less 
than 11 per cent of the galactan of Irish moss (Chondmos crispus) 
disappears from the intestines of man, of Limu Mananea (Gracilaria 
coronopifolia) 30 per cent, of Limu Huna (Hypnea nidiflca) 10 
per cent, of Limu Akiaki (Ahnfeldtia concinna) 60 per cent. How 
the organism utilizes what disappears is not known. 1 

Concerning the digestibility of a mannan from a seaweed nothing 
whatever is known. No work whatever on the digestibility of sea- 
weeds for cattle has been done. It is likely to be rather better than 
for man or dog. 

It is evident that no prediction can be made as to the digestibility 
of any given seaweed unless its chemical composition be known and 
feeding experiments be performed. As has been shown, even sea- 
weeds that seem to contain similar carbohydrates may behave very 
differently when fed. 

Unfortunately none of the experiments have been performed with 
any of the kelps of southern California. There is not even any 
information on the carbohydrates except in the case of Fucus, 
Laminaria, and Gigartina. The first is said to contain cellulose 
and pentosan; the second, glucose, starch, pentosan, and mannan: 
the third, galactan. It is greatly to be desired that they be studied 
both chemically and physiologically, for some of them may well 
contain much starch or other valuable material. 

In general it may be said there is no proof at present that any 
but a very few of the seaweeds have more than a moderate food 

1 Swartz, Op. cit. 



270 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

value. This is rather astonishing, since in Ireland, Hawaii, and 
Japan 1 enormous quantities of seaweed are consumed. However, 
they have, no doubt, considerable value as stimulants of the appe- 
tite, like lettuce and cabbage. They also serve to give bulk to the 
food, much as roughage does for cattle. This may not always be 
an advantage, particularly in the case of seaweeds containing much 
galactan. Such foods will produce the passage of very bulky 
stools, which prevent other elements of the diet from being per- 
fectly utilized, just as whole-wheat bread is less perfectly utilized 
than that made from flour free from bran. The property of some 
seaweeds, especially agar agar, of making the stools bulky is of ad- 
vantage in medicine to combat constipation. 

These conclusions must be regarded as tentative. Much more 
work is necessary. It is altogether possible that some seaweeds 
contain starch or other easily digested dextrans, mannans, or levu- 
lans. These might well be valuable foods. At present none are 
known. Of the seaweeds hitherto investigated some are of moderate 
food value, like roughage, others, containing galactan, are of little 
if any value. Some are nothing more than useless ballast. 

All" this applies to the carbohydrates. Of the utility of the pro- 
teins nothing is known. It is much to be desired that experiments 
on the food value of the proteins be performed, for some seaweeds 
contain no inconsiderable quantities. It must, however, be borne in 
mind that the protein is frequently inclosed in a mass of indigestible 
carbohydrate, which may interfere with the digestibility of the 
protein. 

While most of the seaweeds as such are not very concentrated 
foods, so far as known at present, it might, perhaps, be possible to 
make them more digestible by causing them to ferment. The pos- 
sibility of treating them as ensilage has been indicated. It might 
even be possible to decompose them by chemical means. Now that 
the manufacture of alcohol from wood has proved a success, an an- 
alogous process might be applied to kelps. Indeed, there exists a 
French patent for the manufacture of alcohol from seaweeds, 2 though 
experts have expressed doubts as to its commercial possibilities. 3 

C. L. Alsberg. 

1 Swartz, Op. cit. 

2 H. Simon & J. Jean. Fr. Pat. Nr. 412955. 

3 ff. Zts. f. Spiritus Ind. Vol. 88, p. 539 ; La Sucrerie ind et colon. 1910, No. 14, 
p. 328. 



Appexdix S. 

REFERENCE LIST OF PAPERS CONCERNING THE ECONOMIC USES 
OF ALG.E AND CONCERNING THE SALTS DERIVED FROM ASHES. 



Allary, E Analyses d'algues marines. Soc. chim. n. s. 35: 11-12 (1881); Abs. Chem. 

Soc. Jour. 40: 319-320 (1880). 
■ and Pellieux, J. Nouveau mode d'obtention de l'iodure de potassium derive' 

des varechs. Soc. Chim. Bull. n. s. 34: 627-630 (1880); Abs. Chem. Soc. Jour., 40: 

319 (1880). 
Anderson, Thomas. Composition of kelp salt. Highland agr. soc. Scotland. Trans. 

3dser., 11: 245 (1865). 

Elements of agricultural chemistry, London (1860). 

Observations on the possibility of improving the quality of kelp. Highland 

agr. soc. Scotland. Trans. 3d ser., 5: 449-456 (1853). 

On the composition of seaweeds and their use as manure. Highland agr. soc. 



Scotland. Trans. 3d ser. 7: 349-358 (1857). 

On the sources of the salts of potash and their use as manures. Highland 



agr. soc. Scotland. Trans. 4th ser. 4: 303-317 (1872). 
Annet, H. E., Darbishire, F. V., and Russell, E.J. Edible seaweed. Southeast Agr. 

Coll. Wye. Jour. 16: 204-05 (1907); Chem. Abs. 3: 457 (1909). 
Arber, E. A. Newell. On the effect of nitrates on the carbon assimilation of marine 

algee. Ann. Botany 15: 669-681 (1901). 
Arduino, Pietro. Osservazioni sopra il kali maggiore detto volgarmente Roscano, e 

sopra altre piante indigene dei luoghi marittime circondanti le Venete lagune le di 

cui cinere potrebbero con molta utilita impiegarsi per la formazione de vetri e de' 

saponi [etc.]; Accad. Agricolt, Veneto. Rac. di Mem. 4: 3. 
Baker, H. D. Cloth from seaweed. U. S. Dailv Cons, and Trade Rep. 13: 790 

(1910); Abs. U. S. Dept. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rec. 24: 337 (1911). 
Balch, David M. On the chemistrv of certain algse of the Pacific coast. Jour. Ind. 

and Eng. Chem. 1: 777-787 (1909) -Repr. Easton (1909), 25 pp. 
■ Extracting potassium chloride from seaweed. U. S. Pat. 825-953 (July 17, 

1906). 
Barilla and kelp. Quart. Jour. Agr. 3: 194-197 (1832). 
Barlow, W. H. Analyses of seaweeds. Great Brit. Bd. Agr. Jour. 17: 832 (1911); Abs. 

U. S. Dept. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rec. 24: 625 (1911). 
Baron, Theodore. Examen chimique d'un sel apporte de Perse, sous le nom de 

Borech, avec des reflections sur une dissertation latine concernant la meme matiere. 

Acad. Sci. Paris, Mem. math, and phys. 2: 412. 
Bates, G. Hubert. Marine plants — their uses, with a brief account of the curing of 

Irish moss. U. S. Commr. Agr. Rept. 1866: 423-430. (1867.) 
Beal, W. H. Seaweed [as an agricultural resource]. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farm. Bull. 

105: 5-10. (1899.) 
Beaton, Angus. The art of making kelp, and of encreasing the growth of the marine 

plants from which it is made. Highland Agr. Soc, Scotland. Trans. 1: 32-41. 

(1799.) 
Berthier, Pierre. Chimie agricole. Analyses comparatives des cendres d'un grand 

nombre de vegetaux, suivie de l'analyse des differentes terres vegetales. Paris. 

(1854.) 
Bouillon-Lagrange. Note sur l'extraction de la potasse de l'erigeron Canadense. 

Soc. Pharm. Paris. Jour. 1: 214. 
• Procede economique pour obtenir en grand, l'alkali caustique pur et la 

potasse fondue (pierre a cautere). Soc. de Sante, Paris. Rec. 2: 1. 
Brandt, Georg. Ron och anmarkningar angaende atskilnaden emellan soda och 

potaska. K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Hand. 1746: 289. 
Same. German. Versuche und Anmerkungen den Unterschied zwischen 

Soda und Potasche betreffend. K. Schwed. Akad. Abh. 1746: 296. 

271 



272 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

Cadet de Gassicourt. Analyse de la soude de Varech. Acad. Sci., Paris, Mem. 
1767: 487. 

Experiences sur une soude tiree d'un kali qui avoit ete cultive par du Hamel 

a sa terre de Denainvilliers. Acad. Sci., Paris, Mem. 1774, hist: 22; mem. 42. 

Campbell, Anne. On improving the quality of kelp. [Account of the manufacture 

of kelp on the farm of Strond in Hams.] Highland Agr. Soc, Scotland. Trans. 6: 

251-257. (1824.) 
Chaptal, Jean Antoine Claude. Extrait d'un memoire sur la necessite et les moyens 

de cultiver en France la plant qui fournit la soude d' Alicante, apelles barille. Soc. 

Pharm. Paris. Jour., 1: 219. 
Chemische (Die) industrie Norwegens, 1907. [Norwegisch hydroelektrisch stickstoff- 

compagnie.] Chem. Zeitg. 32: 306. (1908.) 
Cuniasse, L. Analyse des algues marines. Ann. chim. analyt. 5: 213-215. (1900); 

Abs. Chem. Centrb. 1900, 2 (4), 286-287; Soc. chem. ind. Jour. 19: 924. (1900.) 
Davidson, C.J. The sea-weed industry of Japan. Imp. Inst. Tokyo. Bull. 4 (1906). 
Deito, C. Iodine industry in France. Ding. Polyt. Jour. 230: 53-60; Abs. Chem. 

Soc. Jour. 36: 283-284. (1879.) 
Dexter, Aaron. Observations on the manufacture of potash. Am. Acad. Sci. Mem. 

2 pt. 1: 165. 
Draparnaud, Jacques. Theorie de l'origine et de la formation des egagropiles de mer. 

Soc. de Sante et d'hist. nat. Bordeaux. Jour, 1: 21. (1796.) 

Reponse aux observations de Guerin sur la theorie de l'origine des egagropiles 

de mer. Soc. de Sante et d'hist. nat. Bordeaux. Jour. 1: 175. (1796.) 

Duggar, B. M. The toxic effect of some nutrient salts on certain marine algae. Abs. 

TJ. S. Dept. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rec. 14: 529 (1903). 
Ensor. Liquid for softening kelp. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 8: 468 (1889). 
Eschle. tjber den Jodgehalt einiger Algenarten. Zeits. physiol. chem., 23: 23 (1897) . 
Faggot, Jacob. Hydrostatiska ron pa alkaliska solution ers styrka efter atskillige 

slags lut-salt, eller sa kallad pataska. K. Svenska Vet. Akad. Hand. 1759: 31. 

Same. German. Hydrostatische Versuche von der Starke alkalischer Solu- 

tionen, die aus verschiedenen Arten Laugensalz oder sogenannten Pot-asche gemacht 
sind. K. Schwed. Akad. Abh. 1759: 32. 

Fay, Charles Francois de Ciaternay. Maniere de faire de la potasse. Acad. sci. 

Paris. Mem. 1727, hist: 34. Ed. 8°, 1727, hist: 47. 
Food value of vegetable gelatins. Am. Med. Ass. Jour. 48: 142-143. (1907). Abs. 

U. S. Dept. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rec, 18: 857. (1907). 
Fougeroux de Bondaroy, Auguste Denis. Sur la varech. Acad. sci. Paris. Mem. 

1772, pt. 2: 55. 
Frobel, v. Nachtrag zu Anton Schuberts Abhandlungen von der Potasche aus 

Farrenkraut. Gesell. Schlesien. Oekon. Nachr. 7: 306. 
Funck, Alexander. Potaske calcineringen. K. Svenska Vet. akad. Hand. 1759: 

170. 

Same. German. K. Schwed. akad. Abh. 1758: 165. 

Fyfe, Andrew. Essay upon the comparative value of kelp and barilla, founded upon 
accurate experiments. Highland Agr. Soc. Scotland Trans, 5: 10-64 (1820). 

On the improvement of kelp. Highland Agr. Soc. Scotland. Trans. 6: 580- 

587 (1824). 

Galloway, R. Extraction of iodine and bromine from kelp. Chem. Soc. Lon. Jour., 

34: 1017 (1878). 
Presence de l'iode en proportions notables dans tous les vegetaux a chloro- 

phylle de la classe des algues et dans les sulfuraires. Acad. Sci. Paris C. R. 129: 191 

(1899). 
Georgi, Johann Gottlieb. Cinerum clavellatorum Rossiae itemque cinerum betuli- 

norum examen chemicum. Acad. Petropol. Nova Acta 3, hist: 192, mem: 250. 
Gmelin Johannes Georgius. De salibus alkalibus fixis plantarum. Acad. Petropol. 

Comment. 5: 277. 
Godechens. Analyse der asche einiger Fucus- Arten. Ann. Chem. & Pharm. 54: 350 

(1845). 
Goessmann, C. A. Analyses of fertilizers and insecticides. Mass. Exp. Sta. Bull. 

109. 23 pp.; Abs. TJ. S. Dept. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rec, 17: 1143 (1906). 

Analyses of rockweed, Mass. Mass. Exp. Sta. Bull., 81. 

Grondal, Benedict. Um pottasku-brennu af sia-farbangi, ur DSnsku utlagt. Islenzka 

Laerdoms-lista felag. Ritbesz 8: 232. 
Guerin, J. Observations sur le memoire de Draparnaud, intitule, Theorie de l'origine 

et de formation des egagropiles de mer. Soc de sant6 et d'hist. nat. Bordeaux. 

Jour., 1: 125 (1796). 
Gurney, E. H., and Laby, T. H. Analyses of commercial fertilizers in' New South 

Wales. Agr. Gaz. New South Wales. 11: 290-294 (1900). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 273 

Guthrie, F. B. Analysis of seaweed. Agr. Gaz., New South Wales. 10: 528 (1899). 
Hamel, Henri Louis du. Observations sur le sels qu'on retire des cendres des v6gd- 
taux. Acad. Sci., Paris, M£m. 1767, hist: 51, mem: 233. 

Suite des experiences sur les sels qu'on peut retirer des lessives du kali. Acad. 

Sci. Paris. Mem. 1767, mem: 239. 

Hendrick, James. An Edible seaweed. Agr. Students' Gaz., 6: 126-130 (1893). 

Report on experiments on seaweed as a manure for potatoes. Glasgow and 

West Scot. Tech. Coll. Agr. Dept. Rept. 1895: 44-48. 

Seaweed as manure. Agr. students gaz. n. s. 9: 41-A9 (1898); abs. U. S. Dept. 



Agr. Exp. Sta. Rec. 10: 833 (1899). 

The use and value of seaweed as manure. Highland Agr. Soc. Scotland. 



Trans., 5th ser., 10: 118-134 (1898); abs. U. S. Dept. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rec. 10: 934- 
935 (1899). 

Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland. Kelp. [Statement by the commit- 
tee on the manufacture of kelp. Dec. 8, 1814.] Highland Agr. Soc. Scotland. 
Trans. 4: xiv-xv (1816). 

Second report by the committee of the Highland Society of Scotland upon the 

manufacture of kelp. Highland Agr. Soc. Scotland Trans. 5: 1-9 (1820). 
Third report, 1824. See Campbell, Anne. 



Hilgard, Eugene Waldemar. Fertilizing value of grease wood (Sarcobatus vermicu- 

latus). Ash constituents. Cal. Exp. Sta. Bull. 94: 7-8 (1891); abs. U. S. Dept. 

Agr. Exp. Sta. Rec. 3: 373 (1892). 
Hoffmann, Johannes Mauritius. De salis lixivi sive alcalisati ex herbarum cineribus, 

citra acidi associati beneficium, eveniente et perdurante crystallisatione. Acad. 

Caes. Leop-Car. Misc. dec. 2. 10: 359 (1691). 
Holmes, E. M. The Japanese seaweed industry. Pharm. jour. 77. 
Hooper, D. Foodstuffs. [Analyses of Burmese seaweed (Catanella impudica).] 

Indian Mus. Ind. Sect. Ann. Rept. 1908-9: 13-16; abs. U. S. Dept. Agr. Exp. Sta. 

Rec. 22: 68 (1910). 
Jameson, Robert. Observations on kelp from Jameson's Mineralogy of the Shetland 

Islands. Roy. Dublin soc. Trans. 1, pt. 1: 9; Highland Agr. Soc. Scotland. Trans. 

1: 42-49 (1799). 
Johnson, S. W. Seaweed as a fertilizer. Am. Chemist 2: 297-298 (1872). 
Jussieu, Antoine de. Histoire du Kali d'Alicante. Acad, des Sci. Paris. M6m. 

1717: 73-78, 1 pi. (1719); ed. 8°. 1717: 92. 
Kelp-Barilla-Orders m council. Quart. Jour. Agr. 2: 927-936 (1831). 
Kelp ware. U. S. Dispensary. 18th ed.: 1666 (1899). 
Ker, , and Macintosh, . Account of experiments with kelp as a manure. 

i. Experiments by Mr. Ker of Kerfield in 1828. [ii. Experiments by Mr. Macintosh 

of Crossbasket, etc.] Highland Agr. Soc. Scotland. Trans, [n. s. 1]. 7: 317-325 

(1829). 
Kinch, Edward. Contributions to the agricultural chemistry of Japan. Asiatic 

soc. Japan. Trans. 8: 369-415 (1880). 
Klaproth, Martin Henri. Nouvelles donnees relatives a l'histoire naturelle de l'alcali 

vegetal. K. Akad. wiss. Berlin. Mem. 1797, phil. mem.: 9. 
Krasser. F. Algen. 1, Agar-Agar. Wiesner, J.: Rohstoffe d. Pflanzenreiches, 

1900. 1: 643. 
Krefting, A. An improved method of treating sea-weed to obtain valuable products 

therefrom. Alginic acid, "Tang acid." Eng. pat. 11,538, May 27, 1896. Soc. 

Chem. Ind. Jour. 15: 720 (1896). 
An improved system or apparatus for treating sea-weed for the manufacture of 

products therefrom [alginic acid]. Eng. pat. 12,416. June 2, 1898. Soc. Chem. 

Ind. Jour. 17: 846 (1898). 

Improvements in the manufacture of organic products from seaweed. "Tang- 



acid." Eng. pat. 12,275, May 31, 1898; 12,277, May 31, 1898. Soc. Chem. Inc 
Jour. 17: 794 (1898). 

Improvements in the manufacture of organic products from seaweed. Eng. 



pat. 13,151, June 11, 1898; 13,289, June 14, 1898. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 17: 846 
(1898). 

Useful products from seaweed- Eng. pat. 8,042, Apr. 17, 1899. Soc. Chem. 



Ind. Jour. 19: 361 (1900). 
Lampe, Philipp Adolph. Von den Wald-aschen uberhaupt und besonders von der 

Danziger Wald-asche oder Caschub-asche. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde Berlin. 

Neue Schr. 1: 70. 
Leeuwenhock. An abstract of a letter; concerning the various figures of the salts 

contained in several substances. Roy. Soc. Phil. Trans. 15: 1073-1090 (1686). 
Linke, H. F. Handbuch zur Erkennung der nutzbarsten und am haufigstenvorkom- 

menden Gewachse, Berlin, 1829-1833. 

20827°— S. Doc. 190, 62-2 1§ 



274 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OE THE UNITED STATES. 

^Ludwig, Friedrich. Lehrbuch der niederen kryptogamen, mit besonderer Beriick- 

sichtigung derjenigen arten, die fur den Menschen von bedeutung sind oder im 

Haushalte der natur eine hervorragende Rolle spielen. Stuttgart, 1892. 
Macadam, W. Ivison. Manures. — Natural and artificial. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 

7: 79-100 (1888). 
M'Crummen, Donald. On tbe manufacture of kelp. Higbland Agr. Soc. Scotland, 

Trans. 3d ser. 8: 75-78 (1849). 
Macgregor, Alexander. On the causes of the destitution of food in the highlands and 

islands of Scotland in 1836 and 1837. Quart. Jour. Agr. 9: 159-199 (1839). 
Mackinnon, Alexander Kenneth. On the use of kelp combined with peat ashes as 

manure. Highland Agr. Soc. Scotland, Trans. [11] n. s. 4: 245-247 (1835). 
Madden, Henry H. Agricultural Chemistry. No. vi. — Kelp. Quart. Jour. Agr. 10: 

375-376 (1840). 
Mazeas, Abbe. Observations sur l'alkali des plantes marines, et les moyens de le 

rendre propre aux memes usages que la soude. Acad. Sci. Paris. Mem. Math. & 

Phys. 5: 358. 
Meldrum, Edward. Manufacture of iodine and the valuable salts of kelp. Highland 

Agr. Soc. Scotland. Trans. 3d ser. 2: 629-636 (1847). 
Mitchell, John. On the preparation and uses of the various kinds of potash. Roy. 

Soc. Phil. Trans. 45: no. 489: 541-563 (1750); Phil. Trans. Abr. Martyn, 10: 776-788 

(1756); Abr. 9: 572-583 (1809). 
Miyabe, Kingo; Yanagawa, Shin and Ushima, Kintaro. On the Laminariaceae and 

Laminaria industries of Hokkaido. Hokkaido Fishery Bureau. Rept. on marine 

resources III (1902). 
Montagne, J. F. C. Un dernier mot sur le Nostoc edule de la Chine. Rev. Botanique 

2 (1846-47). 
Moore, F. W. Seaweed as a fertilizer. New Hampshire Exp. Sta. Bull. 79: 9 (1900). 
Moride. Fabrication des charbons de varechs. Nouvelle methode d'en extraire le 

brome et l'iode. Moniteur scient. 1866: 445; abs. Acad. Sci. Paris. C. R. 62: 1002 

(1866). 
Mylius, E. [Sources and extraction of iodine. From Hoffman, A. W. Rept. on 

development of chem. arts.] Chem. News 34: 215-216 (1876). 
Namikawa, S. Fresh- water algas as human food. Imp. Univ. Tokyo. Coll. Agr. 

Bull. 7: 123-124 (1906); Chem. Soc. Lon. Jour. 90, 2: 884 (1906). 
Nettlefold, F. A seaweed dye [nitro-alginic acid]. Chem. News 58: 15 (1888). 
Newton. .Treatment of kelp. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 1: 221 (1882). 
Nobbe. tJber die organische Leistung des Kaliums in der Pflanze. Chemnitz, 1871. 
Ono, N. Ueber die Wachsthumsbeschleunigung einiger Algen und Pilze durch 

chemische Reize. Bot. Centb. 80: 170-171 (1899). 
Parkes, Samuel. An essay upon the comparative value of kelp and barilla, founded 

upon accurate experiments. Highland Agr. Soc. Scotland. Trans. 5: 65-122 (1820). 
Pellieux, J., and Allary, E. Applications des appareils dialyseurs a membranes a 

l'extraction de l'iode des sues de varechs. Soc. Chim. Bull., ser. 2. 84: 197-201; 

abs. Chem. Soc. Lon. Jour. 40: 207-208 (1881). 
Percival, Thomas. An account of a new and cheap method of preparing potash, 

with observations. Roy. Soc. Lon. Phil. Trans. 1780:345. 
Pierre, Is. Goemon. Moll L. & Gayot, E. Encycl. prat, de l'agr. 8: col. 332-336 

(1882). 

Varech. Moll, L., & Gayot, E. Encycl. prat, de l'agr. IS: col. 517-523 (1882). 

Pitt, S. The preservation and treatment of kelp for the extraction of iodine and 

gelatinous matter. From G. Laureau, Sons & Co., Quiberon, Morbihan, France. 

Eng. pat. 20,356 sept. (1898). Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 18:1019 (1899). 
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ten by Sen. Francisco Redi. Roy. Soc. Phil. Trans. 20: 281-289 (1699); Phil. 

Trans. Abr. 8: 339-343 (1731). Abr. 4: 301-302 (1809). 
Reed, Minnie. The economic sea-weed of Hawaii. U. S. Dept. Agr. Hawaii Agr. 

Exp. Sta. Ann. Rept. 1906:61-88 (1907); abs. Exp. Sta. Rec. 19: 457 (1908). 
Rein, J. J. The industries of Japan (1889); new ed. (1905). 
Reuss, Franz Ambrosius. Chemische Versuche mit der Asche verschiedener ver- 

brannten Vegetabilien. Bohm. Ges. Wiss. Abth. 1: 130 (1785). 
Richards, H. M. Some edible seaweeds. Science n. s. 21: 895 (1905). 
Rouseen, Leon de. Treating seaweed. Eng. pat. 4214. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 1: 221 

(1882). 
Russell, E. J. The composition of seaweed and its use as manure. Great Brit. Bd. 

Agr. Jour. 17: 458-467 (1910); Abs. U. S. Dept. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rec. 24: 227 (1911). 
Saint-Amans. Lettre sur l'egagropile de mer. Soc de Sant6 et d'hist. nat., Bordeaux. 

Jour. Capelle, 2: 100 (1797). 



FERTILIZER RESOURCES OP THE UNITED STATES. 275 

Scheffer, Henr. Theop. Historia om pataske slagen och deras bruk. K. Svenska 
Vet. Akad. Hand. 1759: 1. 

Same. German. Geschichte vondenArtenderPotascheundderenGebrauch. 

K. Schwed. Akad. Abb. 1759: 3. 

Scbmidt, Tbowald. A process for obtaining alkali from seaweed. [Scbmidt's process, 
chem. works, Aalborg, Jutland, Denmark.] Cbem. News 84: 201; Abs. Cbem. Soc. 
Lon. Jour. SI: 237 (1877). 

Schott. Extraction of iodine from kelp. Chem. Soc. Lon. Jour. 1879: Abs. 151. 

Schubert, Anton. Von der Potascha aus Farrenkraut. Gesell. Schlesien. Oekon. 
Nachr. 7: 305. 

Same. Nachtrag, von Frobel. Gesell. Schlesien. Oekon. Nachr. 7: 306. 

Sea-ware. Quart. Jour. Agr. 3: 717 (1832). 

Seaweed as a fertilizer. Florida Agr. 26: 600 (1899). 

Seaweed as a manure. Field, London, 115: 165 (1910); Mark Lane Express, 103: 

269, 369 (1910); Abs. U. S. Dept. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rec. 23: 25 (1911). 
Seaweed for fruit trees. Agr. Jour. Cape Good Hope, 16: 231-232 (1900). 
Setchell, William A. Limu. Berkeley, (1905). 91-113 pp. Univ. of Cal. Pub. 

Botany 2, no. 3. 
'Shutt, F. T. Analyses of fertilizers. Canada Exp. Farms Rept. 1901: 152-160. 

Analyses of muck, marl, and seaweed. Canada. Exp. Farms Rept. 1894: 

158-164. 

Naturally occurring fertilizers and waste products. Can. Exp. Farms Rept. 



1905: 137-140. 

Simmonds, P. L. Commercial products of the sea. 3d ed. (1883). 
Smith, Hugh M. The seaweed industries of Japan. The utilization of seaweeds in 

the United States. U. S. Bur. Fish. Bull. 24: 133-181, pi. 1-5 (1905); Same. Sep. 
Smith, Watson. E. C. C. Stanford's new method of treating seaweed. Soc. Chem. 

Ind. 4: 518-520 (1885). 
Smout, M. andC. L. Ornaments from kelp. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 6: 660 (1887). 
Solleid, P. R. Tang. Tids. norske Landbr. 8: 13-30 (1901); Abs. Centb. Agr. Chem. 

30: 375-377 (1901). 
Stanford, Edward C. C. Distillation of seaweed. Chem. News. 34: 237 (1876). 

Economic application of seaweed. Soc. Arts. Jour. 32: 717 (1883). 

Improved soluble and insoluble alginates of metallic and other bases. Phar- 
maceutical preparations. Eng. pat. 8075. Feb. 18, 1899. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 
18: 398 (1899). 

Manufacture of iodine. Ding. Polyt. Jour. 226: 85; Abs. Chem. Soc. Jour. 

34, 2: 169-171 (1878). 

New method of treating seaweed. W. Smith Rept. on chem. ind. Soc. 



Chem. Ind. Jour. 4: 518-520 (1885). 

On Algin: A new substance obtained from some of the commoner species of 



marine algae. Chem. News 47: 254-257, 267-269 (1883). 

On Alginic acid and its compounds. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 5: 218-221(1886). 

On the manufacture of iodine. Chem. News 35: 172-175 (1877). 

On the manufacture of kelp. Chem. News. 5: 167 (1862). 

Products from kelps. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 4: 594(1885). 

Remarks on a specimen of seaweed char. Chem. News 16: 166 (1867). 



Stearns. Kelp liquors. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 15 (1896). 

Steedman, R. H. Improvements in treating a product obtained from seaweed. 

Eng. pat. 15,815. Nov. 2, 1888. Soc. Chem. Ind. Jour. 8: 884 (1889). 
Stevens, J. W. Treatment of kelp liquors. Eng. pat. 15,807. Aug. 22, 1895. Soc. 

Chem. Ind. Jour. 15: 595 (1896). 
Suggestions regarding the employment of kelp as a manure. Quart. Jour. Agr. 3: 

556-557 (1832). 
Suzuki, S., and Aso K. The physiological action of iodin and fluorin compounds on 

agricultural plants. Imp. Univ. Tokyo. Coll. Agr. Bull. 5: 473-479. 1 pi. (1903). 

Abs. U. S. Dept. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rec. 16: 20 (1905). 
Swalm,A. Utilization of wrack. U. S. Daily Cons, and Trade Rep. Sill: 6-7(1908). 
Swan, James G. On the economic value of the Giant Kelp and other seaweeds of the 

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276 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

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Appendix T. 

A REFERENCE LIST TO THE LITERATURE OF THE MARINE 

ALG^E. 



ALGiE. 

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Dispositio algarum sueciae. Lundae (1810-12). 

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Isis v. Oken (1820); Flora, Regensburg. 6 (1823). 

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~\ Oh 



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277 



278 FERTILIZER RESOURCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 

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o 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate 




Fig. 1.— Stratum of Phosphatic Limestone Occurring in Phosphate Beds. 




Fig. 2.— Brown-Rock Mining, Showing Bowlders of Phosphatic Limestone. 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate II. 




Fig. 1.— Brown-Rock Mining, Centerville, Hickman County, Tenn. 




Fig. 2.-Oneof the Most Modern Types of Phosphate Plants, Mount Pleasant, 

Tenn. 



Senate Document No. 190. 62-2. 



Plate III. 




J^V^^r^PJ 



Fig- 1 .—Brown-Rock Phosphate Plant, Showing Waste Pond in Foreground. 




Fig. 2.— Another View of the Same Plant, Showing Hood Over Stack and Settling 
Tanks for Finely Divided Phosphate. 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate IV. 




Blue-Rock Mine, 21 Miles Southeast of Centerville, Hickman County, Tenn. 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate V. 




Fig. 1 .—Front View of Acid Plant Run in Connection with a Copper Mine. 




Fig. 2.— Side View of Same Plant, Showing Storage Tanks for Acid. 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate VI. 




Fig. 1.— Battery of Pyrites Burners. 




Fig. 2.— Sulphuric Acid Plant Storage Shed and Cinder Pile. 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate VII. 




Fig. 1.— View of Modern By-product Coke-Oven Plant with Iron Furnace in 

Background. 




Fig. 2.— A Nearer View of the Same Plant. 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate VIII. 




Fig. 1.— View of Tar and Liquor Condensers. 




Fig. 2.— By-product House Containing Ammonia Stills. 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate IX. 




Fig. 1.— Bed of Nereocystis I Bladder Kelp> at Kanaka Bay. 












< 










* % 


„-*-« 



Fig. 2.— Nereocystis Plants at Low Tide, Turn Island. 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate X. 




Fig. 1.— A Rock near Turn Island at Low Tide. 

[The two men are holding a Nereocystis plant. The rocks on which they are standing are 

covered with Alaria.] 




Fig. 2.— A Holdfast of Nereocystis. 






Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate XI. 




A Young Nereocystis Plant. 

[The pneumatocyst has not yet formed and the frond has not yet begun to 
divide.] 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate XII. 




Fig. 1.— A Young Nereocystis Plant, Showing Pneumatocyst and 
Basal Splitting of Leaves. 




Fig. 2.— Portions of two Fronds of Nereocystis. 

[A soral patch is seen at the left side of the upper one. At the right a soral patch 
has fallen out.] 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate XIII. 





Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate XIV. 





Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate XV. 




Fig. 1 .— Hedophyllum on Rock at Neah Bay. 




Fig. 2.— An Alaria Plant Floated on a Board. 
It was attached to the log at the right. 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate XVI. 




Fig. 1 .— Costaria turneri. 




Fig. 2.— Pleurophycus gardneri. 



Senate Document No. 190, 62-2. 



Plate XVII. 




Fig. 1.— Man Holding a Single Egregia Plant at Kanaka Bay, at Low Tide. 
[The rock on which he is standing i^ covered with Hedopliyllum.] 




Fig. 2.— Fucus on a Rock at Kanaka Bay. 
[Wide fucus on the right, narrow fucus on the left.] 



Senate Document 190, 62-2. 



Plate XIX. 





121° 



119° 



117° 



Senate Doc. 190; 62d Cong., 2d Sess. 



INDEX MAP 

Showing location of Kelp Groves surveyed in 1911 




Senate Doc. 190; 62d Cong., 2d Se 



80 82 

r _ 3^-^&hfPn* 

t?fi! J? la lfl 



^^54 19 ««k ™ 




U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF SOILS 

MILTON WHITNEY, CHIEF 

FRANK K. CAMERON, IN CHARGE 



SHEET NO. I 




LEGEND 

Groves less than 50 feet wide. 

Plants per square foot. 

J or less 



itoj 



I 

I to I 



Groves 50 to 1 00 feet wide. 
Plants per square-foot. 



Groves more than 100 feet wide 
Plants per square foot. 



I 

I to J 

I 

I to* 

I 



Senate Doc. 190; 6Zd Cong., 2d Sess. 






SOUNDTXGS 
The sotmdings ar>> m fathoms and show the depth 
at fhe me»m ot'tlf fnwf low waters. 



2 



U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 



FRANK K. CAMERON, IN CHARGE 



SHEET NO. II 



LEGEND 

Groves less than 50 feet wide 

Plants per square foot. 

^ or less 




rate Doc. 190; 6ad Cong.. 2d So 



,,/ iln-i r, .■in,.- I... 



•ii, I sl„„. the J.yil, 



! I » 



o 



U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF SOILS 

MILTON WHITNEY. CHIEF 

FRANK K, CAMERON, IN CHARGE 



,P OF KELP ©ROVES, 



SHEET NO. Ill 




LEGEND 

Groves less than 50 feet wide. 

Plants per square foot. 

^ or less 



□ 

Ho I 

I 

3 to J 

■ 



Groves 50 to 100 feet wide 

Plants per square foot. 

Jrtof 



62d Cong., 2d Se 



/■/„ wundinga are "< fafhomA •»•<! show Ou depth at the mean of (he /. 

. ,, .,,. , .■■,:■./■/ w ?'".■'■■ Sound wliere the figures show thedepUtat i 
,;■. i below that /'!■""■■ 




lapped b 

Frank M. McFal 



j. S-G to LOGICAL SURVEY 



te Doc. 190; 62d Cong., 2d Sess. 



U S DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF SOILS 

MILTON WHITNEY, CHIEF 

FRANK K. CAMERON, IN CHARGE 



)F KELP GFSOVES 



SHEET NO. IV 






. 


r^j '*--. 


Macrocystis and fl ^™MH( 

Ne-reoajstia ,.,!l^-' p '' '•• %\ 
X, Postelsia v ,%£ 


37°30' 






32 j/. v \ Common n «# 




X. Uri. 


" a 




a,'" 


™ n 


haW moon bay ]U e 

\ Macrocystis 






3. " 






._ 




'A 








^-. 3 ^t 



a^gs^ 



LEGEND 
Nereocystis 

I 

Macrocystis 

1 



Mapped by 

F'ank M McFarland 



Senate Ooc. 190; 62d Con B .. 20 Sess 



Ntmtioe] b£l»s 



SOUNDINGS 
Sowing' «™ -n «*"»•• ■*??" "* *" ' i>a "' 



jArttv 'A* depth, at maan la\ 




»:!>■ 


s. -' ' 


8 


*CAP 


WHISTLE 

134 


12' 

tlrcl. 


Mac 
Egn 

14 




16 
lirJ. 




16 




18 




16 


00' 







5 






U. S. DEPT, OF AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF SOILS 

MILTON WHITNEY, CHIEF 

FRANK K. CAMERON, IN CHARGE 



SHEET NO. V 




190; 62d Cong., 2d Se 



e> 



'#a^; 


,J 


16 


/' 


13 


\ 9 


4, 


y 




y 


r 


7 M 


\ 9 




5* 


8 


l* ;: ?*'*'* «>^ 




"H v^ 


si J; 


.J? 


a yS 


"^Seaside 


t&rove_^ 






^ != I^ V \ 


;Mp 






'(a^X 


\\ ^-z^* 

















U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF SOILS 

MILTON WHITNEY. CHIEF 

FKANK K. CAMERON, IN CHARGE 




Fucus 
(All along coast between tide marks 



Egregia 
(Abundant beyond low water mark.) 



Macrocystis 
(Large bed and smaller scattered patches 



Nereocystis 
(Frequent on ocean side of Point Pinos 



I 

D ostelsi 

I 



Senate Doe. ISO: 62d Cong.. 2d So 



V. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF SOILS 

MILTON WHITNEY. CHIEF 

FRANK K. CAMERON. IN CHARGE 



SHEET NO. VII 




« 


.-...,. s 


24 
Sober 


•' 


n n *-. 


iflH 


- 






25 


;S * 


?3H 


"*'*" 


35 


23 




: " 


- rHjPgf 



LEGEND 
Nereocystis 



I 

Fucus 

I 



Mapped by 
Ftank M. McFarland 



Seal 

Statute MShba 



Sonate Doc. 190; 62d Cong.. 2d Se 



SOI NDDfGS IN FATnOMS 



8 




36°i6 



I2I°50' 



Senate Doc. 190; 62d Cong., 2d Sess. 



U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF SOILS 

MILTON WHITNEY, CHIEF 

FRANK K. CAMERON, IN CHARGE 



SHEET NO. VIII 




LEGEND 
Nereocystis 



I 

icrocys 

I 



Macrocystis 



Sonate Doc. 190; 62d Cong., 2d Sass. 



9 



U. S DEPT OF AGRICULTURE 



FRANK K. CAMERON. IN CHARGE 



HAP ©F KELP <&mi 



SHEET NO. IX 










34°02' 



10 



Senate Doc. 190; 62d Cong., 2d Sess. 



U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF SOILS 

MILTON WHITNEY. CHIEF 

FRANK K. CAMERON. IN CHARGE 



SHEET NO. X 




Senate Doc. 190; 62d Cong., 2d Soss. 



SOUNDINGS IN FATHOMS 



11 



zSt ' 



2ii * 



6* 



28t I"'' 1 - 



3 7 yLS. 



U S DEFT Of A.i .R1CUI rURE 




tINTED BY THE U.S GEOLOGIC 



12 






Senate Doe. 190; 62d Cong., 2d Sess. 



SHEET NO. XII 




I 




3 



.e Doc. 190; 62d Cong., 2d Sess. 



U S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF SOILS 

MILTON WHITNEY. CHIEF 

FRANK K. CAMERON. IN CHARGE 



SHEET NO. XV 




LEGEND 
Heavy 



Mapped by 
W. C. Crandall 



Senate Doc. 190: 62d Cong., 2d Sess. 



SOUNDINGS IN FATHOMS 



16 



INGS 

ioms and show tJie depth 



U S DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE 

BUREAU OF SOILS 

MILTON WHITNEY. CHIEF 

FRANK K. CAMERON, IN CHARGE 



SHEET NO. XV] 




LEGEND 
Thin 



Senate Doc. 190; 62d Cong.. 2d Ses 



I 



;' 



. OF AGR1I "I 1 I: '' 



SHEET NO. XVII 




I 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

0002755b4AL, 



